Intensification and specialisation of agriculture in developed countries enabled productivity to be improved but had detrimental impacts on the environment and threatened the economic viability of a ...huge number of farms. The combination of livestock and crops, which was very common in the past, is assumed to be a viable alternative to specialised livestock or cropping systems. Mixed crop-livestock systems can improve nutrient cycling while reducing chemical inputs and generate economies of scope at farm level. Most assumptions underlying these views are based on theoretical and experimental evidence. Very few assessments of their environmental and economic advantages have nevertheless been undertaken in real-world farming conditions. In this paper, we present a comparative assessment of the environmental and economic performances of mixed crop-livestock farms v. specialised farms among the farm population of the French ‘Coteaux de Gascogne’. In this hilly region, half of the farms currently use a mixed crop-livestock system including beef cattle and cash crops, the remaining farms being specialised in either crops or cattle. Data were collected through an exhaustive survey of farms located in our study area. The economic performances of farming systems were assessed on 48 farms on the basis of (i) overall gross margin, (ii) production costs and (iii) analysis of the sensitivity of gross margins to fluctuations in the price of inputs and outputs. The environmental dimension was analysed through (i) characterisation of farmers’ crop management practices, (ii) analysis of farm land use diversity and (iii) nitrogen farm-gate balance. Local mixed crop-livestock farms did not have significantly higher overall gross margins than specialised farms but were less sensitive than dairy and crop farms to fluctuations in the price of inputs and outputs considered. Mixed crop-livestock farms had lower costs than crop farms, while beef farms had the lowest costs as they are grass-based systems. Concerning crop management practices, our results revealed an intensification gradient from low to high input farming systems. Beyond some general trends, a wide range of management practices and levels of intensification were observed among farms with a similar production system. Mixed crop-livestock farms were very heterogeneous with respect to the use of inputs. Nevertheless, our study revealed a lower potential for nitrogen pollution in mixed crop-livestock and beef production systems than in dairy and crop farming systems. Even if a wide variability exists within system, mixed crop-livestock systems appear to be a way for an environmental and economical sustainable agriculture.
Complex landscapes including semi-natural habitats are expected to favour natural enemies thereby enhancing natural pest biocontrol in crops. However, when considering a large number of situations, ...the response of natural biocontrol to landscape properties is globally inconsistent, a possible explanation being that local agricultural practices counteract landscape effects. In this study, along a crossed gradient of pesticide use intensity and landscape simplification, we analysed the interactive effects of landscape characteristics and local pesticide use intensity on natural biocontrol. During 3 years, using a set of sentinel prey (weed seeds, aphids and Lepidoptera eggs), biocontrol was estimated in 80 commercial fields located in four contrasted regions in France. For all types of prey excepted weed seeds, the predation rate was influenced by interactions between landscape characteristics and local pesticide use intensity. Proportion of meadow and length of interface between woods and crops had a positive effect on biocontrol of aphids where local pesticide use intensity was low but had a negative effect elsewhere. Moreover, the landscape proportion of suitable habitats for crop pests decreased the predation of sentinel prey, irrespectively of the local pesticide use intensity for weed seeds, but only in fields with low pesticide use for Lepidoptera eggs. These results show that high local pesticide use can counteract the positive expected effects of semi-natural habitats, but also that the necessary pesticide use reduction should be associated with semi-natural habitat enhancement to guarantee an effective natural biocontrol.
Mixed crop-livestock systems, combining livestock and cash crops at farm level, are considered to be suitable for sustainable intensification of agriculture. Ensuring the survival of mixed ...crop-livestock systems is a challenge for European agriculture: the number of European mixed crop-livestock farms has been decreasing since 1970. Analysis of farming system dynamics may elucidate past changes and the forces driving this decline. The objectives of this study were (i) to identify the diversity of paths that allowed the survival of mixed crop-livestock farming and (ii) to elucidate the driving forces behind such survival. We analysed the variety of farm trajectories from 1950 to 2005. We studied the entire farm population of a case study site, located in the 'Coteaux de Gascogne' region. In this less favoured area of south-western France, farmers have limited specialisation. Currently, half of the farms use mixed crop-livestock systems. The data set of 20 variables for 50 farms on the basis of six 10-year time steps was collected through retrospective surveys. We used a two-step analysis including (i) a visual assessment of the whole population of individual farm trajectories and (ii) a computer-based typology of farm trajectories on the basis of a series of multivariate analyses followed by automatic clustering. The European Common Agricultural Policy, market globalisation and decreasing workforce availability were identified as drivers of change that favoured the specialisation process. Nevertheless, farmers' choices and values have opposed against these driving forces, ensuring the survival of some mixed crop-livestock farming systems. The trajectories were clustered into five types, four of which were compatible with mixed crop-livestock systems. The first type was the maximisation of autonomy by combining crops and livestock. The second type was diversification of production to exploit economies of scope and protect the farm against market fluctuations. The other two types involved enlargement and progressive adaptation of the farm to the familial workforce. The survival of mixed crop-livestock systems in these two types is largely dependent on workforce availability. Only one type of trajectory, on the basis of enlargement and economies of scale, did not lead to mixed crop-livestock systems. In view of the current evolution of the driving forces, maximising autonomy and diversification appear to be suitable paths to deal with current challenges and maintain mixed crop-livestock systems in Europe.
•The paper presents farm-scale costs and the efforts required to measure six parameters to monitor biodiversity.•A database composed of Europe-wide field trials was analysed with a consistent cost ...assessment method to estimate the required costs and effort to complete the measurement of biodiversity on a standardised farm using three different staff-cost scenarios.•The variability of the data indicates that producing a reliable estimation of the costs of monitoring farmland biodiversity requires a large data-set and sample pool of farms, farm types and countries.•Our results point to a possible cost reduction of 46% with farmer involvement and of 77% with volunteer involvement in comparison with monitoring activities subcontracted to private agencies only.
Forty percent of the EU land area is currently considered to be agriculturally managed (utilised agricultural area – UAA – Eurostat Agricultural Census 2010), and attention to the environmental performance of farming practices is growing. To determine the performance of agricultural practices, farm-scale monitoring programmes are required but their implementation is hampered by a number of difficulties such as the identification of broadly applicable indicators appropriate for different biogeographic locations, and the evaluation of the effectiveness and costs of different monitoring approaches. In this paper, we focus on the costs of farm-scale biodiversity monitoring, presenting results from a Europe-wide cost data collection in the EU FP7 BioBio Project. Firstly, we present an analytical assessment of resources consumed by the research units and a cost estimation for the measurement of six biodiversity-related parameters: farm habitats, vegetation, wild bees and bumblebees, spiders, earthworms and farm management. Thereafter, we estimate a standardised cost for an ordinary measurement of the six parameters at farm-scale. In doing so, we highlight the cost differences between three strategies involving different potential actors (professional agencies, farmers, volunteers). This analysis demonstrates that producing reliable data on monitoring costs requires a large sample pool of farms and farm types, as was the case in the BioBio project. The cost standardisation allowed us to estimate a cost for biodiversity monitoring ranging between €2700 and €8200 per farm, depending on the chosen strategy.
•We conceived technical innovations to maintain French mixed crop-livestock farming.•These technical innovations allowed an increase in the total gross margin of farms.•We combined partnership ...discussions and simulations on concrete cases of farms.•The use of intermediate crops favored autonomous mixed crop-livestock farms.•The implementation of a finishing unit favored on-farm diversification.
Mixed crop-livestock farming is regaining interest worldwide as a way to reduce environmental problems while allowing productive and economically viable agriculture. However, the number of mixed crop-livestock farms has been falling steadily in Europe, where production has become concentrated on specialised and enlarged farms. This study aimed to design and assess technical innovations which could enhance the sustainability of mixed farming in the difficult conditions of Less Favoured Areas. It was conducted in a hilly region in south-western France where mixed crop-livestock farming continues to be practiced. Innovative technical scenarios consistent with the two main adaptive strategies implemented by local mixed farms were selected with farmers and other stakeholders. The first, the “maximising farm autonomy” strategy, consisted of sowing forage legumes between two cash crops to achieve herd feed self-sufficiency while maintaining soil fertility. The second, the “diversifying production” management strategy, consisted of adding a heifer fattening unit to increase farm income. Both scenarios were assessed on two actual farms using a whole farm simulation tool, CLIFS, based on feed and manure balances. They then were combined with prospective scenarios on public policies and markets to analyse farmers’ capacity to cope with changes in their economic environment. Under current conditions, the two technical innovations allowed an increase of the total gross margin per hectare of cultivated area by respectively 8.9% and 17.1%. However, under contrasting future political and economic conditions, they were unable to mitigate the impact of drastic shocks. Public policy support would likely be needed to maintain local mixed crop-livestock farms in these contexts. The combination of discussions and simulations using concrete farm cases ensured a lively dialogue between researchers, farmers, and professionals. The process combined a broad range of empirical, technical and scientific knowledge and enriched both individual and collective learning.
family farm – south countries – inheritance - Transformation
L’agriculture est-elle toujours une affaire de famille ? Cet ouvrage analyse les transformations du caractère familial de l’agriculture en ...France, mises en perspective avec quelques éclairages de situations dans les pays du Sud. La première partie de l’ouvrage rend compte des recompositions de l’exploitation agricole et de ses enjeux, exploitation qui est de moins en moins familiale, tout en le restant. Elle propose des cadres d’analyse élargis pour les appréhender. Les transformations des formes familiales d’agriculture sont abordées dans une deuxième partie par l’étude des mutations qui s’opèrent dans le travail en agriculture. Ces mutations amènent à questionner le sens du travail et les interfaces avec le vivre en famille et les activités non-agricoles, au-delà des seules problématiques d’organisation et de performances technico-économiques. La troisième partie de l’ouvrage montre que les cadres structurant l’activité agricole dépassent le champ de la famille et se renouvellent, en particulier dans les formes d’insertion territoriale, dans les modalités des processus d’innovation et par des reconfigurations de l’action collective de proximité. Finalement, les transformations du caractère familial, saisies dans le temps long des trajectoires d’exploitations, sont aussi observées dans les formes et stratégies de pérennisation et de transmission, qu’il s’agisse de transmettre un statut, une activité, une entreprise, un patrimoine, un outil de production ou encore des savoir-faire. Une synthèse conclusive propose un renouvellement des questions de recherche et plaide pour un décloisonnement des études en agriculture. L’ouvrage rassemble des travaux de recherche récents de chercheurs issus du département Sciences pour l’action et le développement (Sad) de l’Inra et de ses partenaires scientifiques et professionnels. Il fait une large place à des travaux de jeunes chercheurs et à des thèses récemment soutenues. D’abord destiné aux chercheurs et enseignants-chercheurs, il s’adresse également aux organisations professionnelles (instituts techniques, réseaux associatifs, syndicats, chambres d’agriculture, etc.).
Organic farming is promoted to reduce environmental impacts of agriculture, but surprisingly little is known about its effects at the farm level, the primary unit of decision making. Here we report ...the effects of organic farming on species diversity at the field, farm and regional levels by sampling plants, earthworms, spiders and bees in 1470 fields of 205 randomly selected organic and nonorganic farms in twelve European and African regions. Species richness is, on average, 10.5% higher in organic than nonorganic production fields, with highest gains in intensive arable fields (around +45%). Gains to species richness are partly caused by higher organism abundance and are common in plants and bees but intermittent in earthworms and spiders. Average gains are marginal +4.6% at the farm and +3.1% at the regional level, even in intensive arable regions. Additional, targeted measures are therefore needed to fulfil the commitment of organic farming to benefit farmland biodiversity.
•Designing effective measures for biodiversity requires a multi-taxon approach.•Plants, earthworms, spiders and bees in arable fields across Europe are analysed.•Patterns in species communities are ...mainly affected by the study region.•Abundance, species richness and composition respond differently to drivers.•Effects of agricultural management are taxon-specific.
Farmland species provide key ecological services that support agricultural production, but are under threat from agricultural intensification and mechanization. In order to design effective measures to mitigate agricultural impact, simultaneous investigations of different taxonomic groups across several regions are required. Therefore, four contrasting taxonomic groups were investigated: plants, earthworms, spiders and bees (wild bees and bumblebees), which represent different trophic levels and provide different ecological services. To better understand underlying patterns, three community measurements for each taxonomic group were considered: abundance, species richness and species composition. In four European regions, ten potential environmental drivers of the four taxonomic groups were tested and assigned to three groups of drivers: geographic location (farm, region), agricultural management (crop type, mineral nitrogen input, organic nitrogen input, mechanical field operations and pesticide applications) and surrounding landscape in a 250m buffer zone (diversity of habitats in the surroundings, proportion of arable fields and proportion of non-productive, non-woody habitats). First, the variation in abundance, species richness and species composition from 167 arable sites was partitioned to compare the relative contribution of the three groups of drivers (geographic location, agricultural management and surrounding landscape). Second, generalized linear mixed-effects models were applied to estimate the effect of the individual explanatory variables on abundance and species richness. Our analysis showed a dominant effect of geographic location in all four taxonomic groups and a strong influence of agricultural management on plants, spiders and bees. The effect of the surrounding landscape was of minor importance and inconsistent in our data. We conclude that in European arable fields, the avoidance of mineral nitrogen and pesticides is beneficial for biodiversity, and that species protection measures should take into account regional characteristics and the community structure of the investigated taxonomic groups.
Complex landscapes including semi-natural habitats are expected to favour natural enemies thereby enhancing natural pest biocontrol in crops. However, when considering a large number of situations, ...the response of natural biocontrol to landscape properties is globally inconsistent, a possible explanation being that local agricultural practices counteract landscape effects. In this study, along a crossed gradient of pesticide use intensity and landscape simplification, we analysed the interactive effects of landscape characteristics and local pesticide use intensity on natural biocontrol. During 3 years, using a set of sentinel prey (weed seeds, aphids and Lepidoptera eggs), biocontrol was estimated in 80 commercial fields located in four contrasted regions in France. For all types of prey excepted weed seeds, the predation rate was influenced by interactions between landscape characteristics and local pesticide use intensity. Proportion of meadow and length of interface between woods and crops had a positive effect on biocontrol of aphids where local pesticide use intensity was low but had a negative effect elsewhere. Moreover, the landscape proportion of suitable habitats for crop pests decreased the predation of sentinel prey, irrespectively of the local pesticide use intensity for weed seeds, but only in fields with low pesticide use for Lepidoptera eggs. These results show that high local pesticide use can counteract the positive expected effects of semi-natural habitats, but also that the necessary pesticide use reduction should be associated with semi-natural habitat enhancement to guarantee an effective natural biocontrol.
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