We report the development and validation of a questionnaire measure of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (rRST) of personality. Starting with qualitative responses to defensive and ...approach scenarios modeled on typical rodent ethoexperimental situations, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) revealed a robust 6-factor structure: 2 unitary defensive factors, fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS; related to fear) and the behavioral inhibition system (BIS; related to anxiety); and 4 behavioral approach system (BAS) factors (Reward Interest, Goal-Drive Persistence, Reward Reactivity, and Impulsivity). Theoretically motivated thematic facets were employed to sample the breadth of defensive space, comprising FFFS (Flight, Freeze, and Active Avoidance) and BIS (Motor Planning Interruption, Worry, Obsessive Thoughts, and Behavioral Disengagement). Based on theoretical considerations, and statistically confirmed, a separate scale for Defensive Fight was developed. Validation evidence for the 6-factor structure came from convergent and discriminant validity shown by correlations with existing personality scales. We offer the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire to facilitate future research specifically on rRST and, more broadly, on approach-avoidance theories of personality.
Objectives
Public behaviour change is necessary to contain the spread of coronavirus (COVID‐19). Based on the reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) framework, this study presents an examination of ...individual differences in some relevant psychological factors.
Design
Cross‐sectional psychometric.
Methods
UK respondents (N = 202) completed a personality questionnaire (RST‐PQ), measures of illness attitudes, concerns about the impact of coronavirus on health services and socio‐economic infrastructures, personal safety, and likelihood of voluntary self‐isolation.
Results
Respondents most concerned were older, had negative illness attitudes, and scored higher on reward reactivity (RR), indicating the motivation to take positive approach action despite prevailing worry/anxiety. Personal safety concerns were highest in those with negative illness attitudes and higher fight–flight–freeze system (FFFS, reflecting fear/avoidance) scores. Results suggest people are experiencing psychological conflict: between the urge to stay safe (FFFF‐related) and the desire to maintain a normal, pleasurable (RR‐related) life. Ways of ameliorating conflict may include maladaptive behaviours (panic buying), reflecting reward‐related displacement activity. Intended self‐isolation related to FFFS, but also low behavioural inhibition system (related to anxiety) scores. Older people reported themselves less likely to self‐isolate.
Conclusions
Interventions need to consider individual differences in psychological factors in behaviour change, and we discuss relevant literature to inform policy makers and communicators.
Statement of contribution
What is already known on this subject?
Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) personality systems can influence perception of persuasive health messages.
However, there is limited evidence for their direct effects on health concerns and behaviours, and none relating to specific infectious diseases.
What does this study add?
Reward reactivity (RR) is associated with concern about impact of coronavirus on the NHS and other social infrastructures, indicating the motivation to take positive‐approach action despite worry/anxiety.
Personal safety concerns are related to fight–flight–freeze system traits (FFFS, reflecting fear/avoidance).
Intended self‐isolation related to FFFS, but also low behavioural inhibition system (related to anxiety) scores.
Older people reported themselves less likely to self‐isolate.
Results suggest psychological conflict: between the urge to stay safe (FFFF‐related) and the desire to maintain a normal, pleasurable life (RR‐related).
Ways of ameliorating conflict may include maladaptive behaviours (panic buying), reflecting reward‐related displacement activity
Many personality theories link specific traits to the sensitivities of the neural systems that control approach and avoidance. But there is no consensus on the nature of these systems. Here we ...combine recent advances in economics and neuroscience to provide a more solid foundation for a neuroscience of approach/avoidance personality. We propose a two-stage integration of valuation (loss/gain) sensitivities with motivational (approach/avoidance/conflict) sensitivities. Our key conclusions are: (1) that valuation of appetitive and aversive events (e.g. gain and loss as studied by behavioural economists) is an independent perceptual input stage--with the economic phenomenon of loss aversion resulting from greater negative valuation sensitivity compared to positive valuation sensitivity; (2) that valuation of an appetitive stimulus then interacts with a contingency of presentation or omission to generate a motivational 'attractor' or 'repulsor', respectively (vice versa for an aversive stimulus); (3) the resultant behavioural tendencies to approach or avoid have distinct sensitivities to those of the valuation systems; (4) while attractors and repulsors can reinforce new responses they also, more usually, elicit innate or previously conditioned responses and so the perception/valuation-motivation/action complex is best characterised as acting as a 'reinforcer' not a 'reinforcement'; and (5) approach-avoidance conflict must be viewed as activating a third motivation system that is distinct from the basic approach and avoidance systems. We provide examples of methods of assessing each of the constructs within approach-avoidance theories and of linking these constructs to personality measures. We sketch a preliminary five-element reinforcer sensitivity theory (RST-5) as a first step in the integration of existing specific approach-avoidance theories into a coherent neuroscience of personality.
We report a meta-analysis of up to 40 data sets that examined the personality dimensions in the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and the integrated Five-Factor Model (IFFM) in relation to ADHD symptom domains ...of inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI). The IFFM incorporated the dimensions of other personality models (in particular, those of Eysenck, Tellegen, and Cloninger, as well as the FFM). Major findings were: (1) IA and HI were both associated with low conscientious inhibition/conscientiousness, and low agreeable inhibition/agreeableness, and with high negative emotionality/neuroticism; (2) conscientious inhibition and conscientiousness were more strongly related to IA than HI; (3) agreeable inhibition and agreeableness were more strongly related to HI than IA; and (4) the association of conscientious inhibition and conscientiousness with HI was moderated by age group and source from where participants were recruited (associations were stronger in children than adults, and clinical samples than community samples). These findings are discussed in relation to single and multiple pathway theories, underlying factors and processes for the personality–ADHD link, and clinical implications.
•The potential for an integrated five-factor personality model and ADHD was examined.•ADHD symptom groups are inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI).•Conscientious inhibition had stronger negative associations with IA than HI.•Agreeable inhibition had stronger negative associations with HI than IA.•IA and HI were about equally associated positively with negative emotionality.
One of the major neuropsychological models of personality, developed by world-renowned psychologist Professor Jeffrey Gray, is based upon individual differences in reactions to punishing and ...rewarding stimuli. This biological theory of personality - now widely known as 'Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory' (RST) - has had a major influence on motivation, emotion and psychopathology research. In 2000, RST was substantially revised by Jeffrey Gray, together with Neil McNaughton, and this revised theory proposed three principal motivation/emotion systems: the 'Fight-Flight-Freeze System' (FFFS), the 'Behavioural Approach System' (BAS) and the 'Behavioural Inhibition System' (BIS). This is the first book to summarise the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality and bring together leading researchers in the field. It summarizes all of the pre-2000 RST research findings, explains and elaborates the implications of the 2000 theory for personality psychology and lays out the future research agenda for RST.
The aims of this study were to design and validate a questionnaire to measure passive and active Facebook use, and to explore the associations of these factors with the Reinforcement Sensitivity ...Theory (RST) of personality. Passive Facebook use describes the consumption but not the creation of content, while active Facebook use describes active engagement with the site. As Facebook has many features, users may interact with the site differently, thereby creating conflicting results when general use measures are assessed independently. To address this issue, we developed a 13-item questionnaire which reflects three levels of Facebook engagement: Active social, Active non-social, and Passive use. These three multi-item scales demonstrate sufficient internal reliability and discriminant validity. To further investigate individual differences in Facebook use, we used regressions to assess the associations between RST and the factors of the Passive Active Use Measure (PAUM). Reward Reactivity was positively associated with both Active social and Passive use. Impulsivity and Goal-Drive Persistence were positively associated with Active non-social use. FFFS was positively associated with Passive use, and Reward Interest was positively associated with all three PAUM factors. The findings of this study highlight how individual differences impact the way users engage with Facebook.
•Development and validation of a measure for passive Facebook use.•The PAUM contains three factors: active social, active non-social and passive use.•The factors of the PAUM have good internal reliability and discriminant validity.•The factors of the PAUM are associated with RST personality traits.
This Special Issue poses a pertinent question: Is a consensual paradigm needed, possible, or even desirable, in personality psychology? One seems necessary to unify the disparate perspectives that ...characterise the field, as well as to make a major contribution to the broader unification of psychology in which individual differences loom large. This discussion is presented in relation to standard models in mature science where scientific progress is more assured. Additionally, such a consensual paradigm would contribute positively to a (at least, partial) resolution of the reproduction and replication problems in psychology and the social sciences more widely - by taking seriously the influences of personality factors and processes that can play havoc with the interpretation of main effects and how to account for error terms. In this Special Issue, 14 papers span a wide range of perspectives: Descriptive/taxonomic models, meta-theories, cognitive and motivation processes, measurement and statistics, environmental factors, and more abstract notions of human nature and the mind. Although there may be scant evidence of a consensus regarding the preferred approach, it seems clear enough that synthesis is now needed. Progress along this path should make a major contribution to the construction of a viable consensual paradigm for personality.
We conducted three studies (total n = 998) aimed at developing and validating a shortened version of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (i.e., the RST-PQ-S). In Study 1 ...(n = 341), twenty-two items were selected from the original RST-PQ, based on both theoretical and empirical criteria. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on this short-form supported the six-factor structure comprising: FFFS, BIS, and four BAS components (Reward Interest, Goal Drive-Persistence, Reward Reactivity, and Impulsivity). The six scale scores showed adequate levels of internal consistency. Construct validity was supported by correlations with established personality measures. In Study 2 (n = 340), CFA results were cross-validated in an independent sample and construct validity was supported by correlations with BIS/BAS scales. In Study 3 (n = 317) test-retest correlations showed acceptable-to-good levels of temporal stability over a four-week interval. Results revealed a substantial overlap with original, full-length RST-PQ, providing evidence for the comparability of the two versions. Latent State-Trait analyses showed that the items of the RST-PQ-S mostly capture interindividual differences that are stable across situations. Taken together, findings indicate that the RST-PQ-S provides an efficient, valid and reliable alterative to the longer RST-PQ.
A fully fledged neuroscience of personality is beginning to emerge, shaped and guided in large measure by the seminal work of Jeffrey A. Gray over a period of 40 years. In this Festschrift, I trace ...the theoretical development of Gray's approach—now known as
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST)—out of the Eysenckian tradition to its most recent articulation. Experimental attempts to test RST are reviewed and the theoretical problems raised by this literature discussed. Also presented are data relating to a recent clarification of RST, viz. the
joint subsystems hypothesis, which postulates a fundamental interdependence of appetitive and aversive systems in the typical human laboratory. The value of Gray's general approach to building behavioural theories on the bases of both the conceptual nervous system and the real nervous system is validated in personality, which has long been thought a philosophical mystery rather than a standard problem to be tackled by scientific method.
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