This study addresses the pressing issue of nonpoint source water pollution in Kentucky, particularly associated with large-scale agriculture. Centered on the outer bluegrass region of Central ...Kentucky, the research examines the water quality of headwater streams during the agricultural season. The approach involves geospatial land cover classification using aerial imagery. Water quality data were collected during the agricultural growing season from May to October 2018. Land cover classification utilized ERDAS Imagine 2016 and ESRI ArcGIS 10.6 GIS software, while conventional water quality parameters were measured with a YSI ProDSS® multiparameter water probe and a Marsh-McBirney Flo-Mate 2000 flow meter. Statistical analyses show significant differences in stream water chemistry, suggesting the impact of agricultural nonpoint source pollution. Forested streams exhibited more varied conditions, indicating a potentially better environment. As agricultural land percentage increased, water chemistry variation suggested a measurable threshold for changes. Significant differences in water quality between agricultural and forested streams highlight the potential benefits of expanding riparian zones beyond regulations. Enlarging these zones is proposed as a strategy to mitigate nonpoint source pollution in Kentucky’s waterways.
The Appalachian Mountain region of eastern Kentucky is unique and contains high proportions of forestland along with coal and natural gas depositaries. Landscape changes due to extreme mining ...activities can eventually threaten the downstream ecosystems, including soil and water quality, resulting in excessive runoff and sedimentation. The purpose of this study is to assess the impacts of land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes in streamflow and sediment yield in Yellow Creek Watershed, Kentucky, USA, between 1992 and 2016. LULC, digital elevation model, soil, and weather data were inputted into the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to simulate discharge and sediment yield. The model output was evaluated on several statistical parameters, such as the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE), RMSE-observations standard deviation ratio (RSR), percent bias (PBIAS), and the coefficient of determination (R2). In addition, two indices, P-factor and R-factor, were used to measure the prediction uncertainty. The calibrated model showed an increase in surface runoff and sediment yield due to changes in LULC in the Yellow Creek Watershed. The results provided important insights for studying water management strategies to make more informed land management decisions and adaptive practices.
In-stream watershed level evaluations confirm that application of recommended forestry best management practices (BMPs) can minimize sedimentation following management, while on-site erosion research ...shows that BMPs reduce erosion from individual forest operations, thus implying watershed-level sediment reductions. Assessments of forest operations and sediment have developed very few sediment delivery ratios (SDR). Linking BMP levels (low, standard recommendation, high) within specific forest operations to sedimentation could enable managers to evaluate BMP effects. Reported data regarding forest operations, erosion rates and SDR by forest operation, and BMP implementation levels were sufficient within the Piedmont region to allow approximations of sediment delivery and BMP efficiency. Existing United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service reports and published erosion and sediment research were used to comprise the following method. For regional annual harvests, estimated sediment deliveries (Mg year−1) = annual harvest area (ha year−1) × weighted average erosion rate from all forest operations (Mg ha−1 year−1) × SDR (unitless ratio). Weighted average erosion rates for all forest operations were determined by applying areas in each operational activity (%) × estimated erosion per operation (Mg ha−1 year−1). In comparing published data, standard BMPs reduced estimated sedimentation by 75% compared to low BMP implementation levels. This supports forestry BMP efficiency findings reported for sediment removals in watershed studies. Higher levels of BMP implementation were estimated to potentially remove nearly all forest operation-produced sediment. Values of this pilot study should be viewed cautiously, as estimates were based on limited data, estimated operations, and limited SDRs; are based on BMP categories that vary between states; and address only one year following harvests. However, the approach provided approximations that facilitate BMP evaluations and can be improved with additional data. This methodology highlights the importance of accurate estimates of erosion rates, SDRs, sediment masses, and area for operations. This supports the importance of state programs, which have increased BMP implementation rates and compliance options with BMP program maturation.
•Literature review of forestry best management practice (BMP) effectiveness studies.•Reviewed thirty research studies in the southern United States.•Reviewed twenty research studies in the northern ...United States.•Reviewed thirty-one research studies in the western United States.•Literature indicates that water quality is protected when BMPs are properly applied.
In response to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (a.k.a., Clean Water Act) of 1972, forestry best management practices (BMPs) were developed and subsequently implemented to address NPS pollution during forest management. BMP guidelines vary by state and can be non-regulatory, quasi-regulatory, or regulatory. To determine how effective the guidelines for protecting water quality are, research literature relating to BMP effectiveness was evaluated. Forestry BMP effectiveness studies are often site or region specific. Therefore, BMP research in the United States was divided into three regions: northern, southern, and western. Thirty research studies were reviewed for the southern region with the majority being conducted in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain physiographic regions. The western region had thirty-one studies, most of which were in the Pacific Border physiographic region. The northern region had twenty studies primarily in the northeastern states. Forestry BMP effectiveness research generally focused on forest water quality from timber harvesting, site preparation, forest road construction and maintenance, stream crossings, and other categories of forest operations. The literature indicates that forestry BMPs protect water quality when constructed correctly and in adequate numbers. Forestry BMP effectiveness studies allow state forestry BMP programs to evaluate progress in reducing non-point source pollution and achieving water quality goals established under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Furthermore, states have used research findings to change BMPs and improve their guidelines. Although forestry BMPs have been proven to protect water quality, they are still being refined to enhance their performance.
•UAV live-feed surveys were as effective as the conventional survey method.•UAV-live feed surveys were more time-efficient than the conventional survey method.•UAV-created map surveys were less ...effective than the conventional survey method.•Developed a standardized framework for UAV-based monitoring of forestry BMPs.
Compared to undisturbed areas, timber harvest activities, including road construction, skid trails, and stream crossings, exhibit the potential for causing erosion and sedimentation if forestry best management practices (BMPs) are not implemented. Forestry BMP monitoring serves as a tool to evaluate BMP implementation status. Conventional on-the-ground BMP monitoring has contributed substantially to assessing BMP implementation. However, conventional on-the-ground surveys can be time consuming. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been rapidly emerging as a new tool for local-scale monitoring. In this study, we evaluated the feasibility and potential of UAVs for monitoring forestry BMPs in the coastal plain of southeastern United States. We compared the performance of UAV-live feed surveys and UAV-created map surveys with conventional on-the-ground surveys across major BMP categories on 30 study sites using BMP guidelines and implementation survey questions from Alabama, Georgia, and Florida for the sites specific to that state (10 sites in each state). The UAV-live feed surveys involved real-time assessments conducted using the live feed function, enabling on-the-spot evaluations. Whereas the UAV-created map surveys entailed autonomous UAV flight to collect imagery specifically for generating maps and facilitating subsequent assessments.
We found that using a UAV for monitoring BMPs efficiently provided an overview of a timber harvest area from above. UAV-live feed surveys were as effective as conventional on-the-ground surveys across all major BMP categories. Specifically, the Cramer's V correlation between the responses from UAV-live feed and conventional on-the-ground surveys for all BMP categories, was 0.95 (p < 0.0001) for detecting implemented BMPs and 0.86 (p < 0.0001) for detecting when BMPs were not implemented but needed to be. UAV-created map survey results vs. conventional on-the-ground surveys were not as effective (V of 0.79 for detecting implemented BMPs and 0.46 for detecting BMPs not implemented but needed). Waste and stream crossing BMP implementation were the most difficult to verify using the map surveys, which was not an issue with the live feed surveys due to the capability to evaluate those BMPs at different camera angles. While UAV-created map surveys may be less effective, they provide an observation record that includes a map of the site. This project also developed a standardized framework for using UAVs to monitor forestry BMPs, including instructions and procedures for conducting UAV-live feed and map surveys. In conclusion, a UAV using the live feed function in the field is a feasible option to monitor forestry BMPs.
•The national BMP implementation rate was 91% (32 states reported data).•State BMP regulation did not have an effect on mean state implementation rates.•Mean state BMP implementation rates were lower ...for the northeastern region.•Thirty-three states reported having conducted BMP effectiveness studies.•Twenty-five states written or revised BMP guidelines within five years of the survey.
United States forestry best management practices (BMPs) were developed by U.S. states to protect water quality while enhancing the sustainability of forest management activities. Forestry BMPs are revised over time or new BMPs are written to meet current water quality standards. Properly implemented forestry BMPs have been found to minimize the impact of erosion and sediment that may occur during forest management activities. States developed implementation strategies to help determine if BMPs are being implemented correctly; however, these strategies can vary between regions and states making implementation results difficult to interpret. Few studies have compared monitoring strategies and implementation of BMPs on a national level. This study surveyed and received responses from state forestry agencies in all 50 states. Each state reported a documented BMP manual. Twenty states reported non-regulatory BMP guidelines, 19 reported quasi-regulatory BMP guidelines, and 11 reported regulatory BMP guidelines. Thirty-nine states have BMP monitoring programs with the state forestry agency as the lead agency in 35 states. BMP effectiveness studies were reported in 33 states with 19 states reporting current or future effectiveness studies. Thirty-two states reported that they have conducted BMP implementation studies resulting in a mean national BMP implementation rate of 91%. However, when evaluating implementation of individual BMP categories, the survey indicated potential deficiencies for some states, yet these states’ overall BMP implementation rate appear to be satisfactory. There was no significant difference between non-regulatory, quasi-regulatory, and regulatory BMP guidelines when compared by mean state BMP implementation rates (90.2%, 90.2%, and 93.4%, respectively). Mean BMP implementation rates for the western (93.2%) and southeastern (92.4%) regions were significantly higher than the northeastern region (86.4%). This assessment of state BMP programs indicates that BMP programs appear to be implemented at relatively high levels across the U.S. These findings should be useful globally for agency managers to improve program effectiveness and better understand BMP implementation and program structure among 50 diverse states.
As demand for wood energy rises, it’s vital to understand the environmental impact of various harvest types, considering different best management practices (BMPs) and site conditions, for ...sustainable forest management. This study provides a comparative analysis of postharvest site characteristics between biomass and conventional harvest sites located in the Coastal Plain region of the southeastern US. A total of 30 recently harvest sites (15 each for biomass and conventional) were selected from the Coastal regions of Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Erosion rates were estimated using the USLE-Forest method and ground cover was assessed as a percentage of the area covered by bare soil, litter, light slash, heavy slash, and piles. BMP implementation (%) was based on state-specific BMP surveys. The findings show that stream management zones (SMZs) and harvest areas were less prone to soil erosion, while forest roads, skid trails, and stream crossings were more prone to erosion, regardless of the harvest type. Conventional harvest sites had an overall weighted average erosion rate of 0.35 Mg/ha/year, with an average BMP implementation of 92.70 %, while biomass harvest sites had an overall weighted average erosion rate of 0.22 Mg/ha/year, with an average BMP implementation rate of 97.91 %. Average erosion rate (Mg/ha/year) from the harvest area (biomass=0.11, conventional=0.06) and SMZs (biomass=0.05, conventional=0.02) were not significantly different (p>0.05). Conversely, average erosion rate from roads (biomass=4.17, conventional=6.44), skid trails (biomass=2.15, conventional=3.73), decks (biomass=0.39, conventional=0.72), and stream crossings (biomass=1.53, conventional=5.31) were significantly higher in conventional harvest sites (p<0.05). BMP implementation rates for roads (biomass=98.09 %, conventional=93.71 %), stream crossings (biomass=95 %, conventional=71 %), and timber harvest (biomass=96.44 %, conventional=93.33 %) were significantly higher in biomass harvest sites, while waste management BMP (biomass=89.91 %, conventional=100 %) was significantly higher in conventional harvest sites. Regarding ground cover, conventional harvest sites had significantly larger areas covered by light slash, heavy slash, and piles than biomass harvest sites, while biomass harvest sites had significantly larger areas covered by green growth. Our research shows a significant negative correlation between overall BMP implementation and erosion rates (r=-0.67, p=0.0002), as well as site size (r=-0.38 p=0.0400), indicating that larger sites tend to have lower BMP implementation and increased erosion risk. In conclusion, biomass harvest sites in our study did not yield higher erosion rates in comparison to conventional harvest sites, provided that the current BMP recommendations were implemented properly and in adequate amounts. This study emphasizes the importance of site-specific management strategies to mitigate erosion in all harvest sites, irrespective of harvest type used.
•There is no significant difference in erosion rate between biomass and conventional harvest sites.•Conventional harvest sites exhibit a greater coverage of woody debris than biomass harvest sites.•Proper implementation of BMPs at both conventional and biomass harvest sites underscores water quality protection efforts.•A significant negative correlation exists between BMP implementation and erosion rate.
The Southern US has the potential to make a significant contribution to the global bioenergy market by producing woody biomass feedstock. Despite extensive research on the technical and economic ...aspects of biomass production in the Southeastern region, most studies didn't incorporate the social aspects of forest stakeholders. This study aimed to understand the perceptions of forest stakeholders toward biomass production, consumption, and overall biomass market conditions. We conducted online surveys of biomass producers and consumers using Qualtrics software and found that, on average, 30% of the total harvested volume was made up of small-diameter trees. The main reasons for harvesting biomass were improving the aesthetic value of the site, increasing total revenue, and diversifying the business. Trucking distance with an average haul distance of 84-140 km (one-way), limited local markets, equipment availability, machine and labor costs, and production costs were ranked as biomass producers' five major challenges. If there were more profitable options with better logistics, shorter transportation distances, and lower production costs, most of the producers (strongly agree = 56%, agree = 34%) would be willing to harvest more biomass. As for consumers, 80% of pellet producers, 33% of heat combustion plants, and only 14% of power combustion plants intend to expand biomass consumption over the next five years. Moreover, stakeholders' occupation type, tract size, length of ownership, years of consuming biomass, and consumption rate affect biomass production and consumption decisions.
Kentucky has varied landscapes favorable for different land use land cover and agroecosystem management. The changes in land use land cover concerning a change in landownership structure can ...potentially alter landscape diversity and ecological productivity. This research examined the relationship among land cover, ownership structure (small, medium, and large parcel), and ecological productivity in Scott, Morgan, and Graves counties of Kentucky. Landsat 4–5 TM and 8 OLI (30-meter) imagery were used for supervised classification, accuracy assessment, and change detection at the pixel level in the years 2001, 2011, and 2016 for major land cover classes. The correlations in landscape diversity were analyzed using parcel data and thematic maps. Ecological productivity was estimated using the MODIS-NDVI 250 m, 16-day mean composite data along with parcel data. The change in land cover was primarily noticed in the cultivated crops and water, cultivated crops, and forest and pasture in Scott, Morgan, and Graves Counties, respectively. There was a strong negative correlation among agriculture, forest, and developed lands. The parcel size was significant (p < 0.05) for most of the land cover classes, but the relationships were not consistent in all combinations of year and counties. The ecological productivity was significantly different (p < 0.05) between small, medium, and large parcels. Further research is needed on other driving factors so that appropriate policy and decisions can be set for sustainable agroecosystem management.
•This study explored land cover change over 16 years in three counties in Kentucky.•Overall, the land cover change was observed in cultivated crops, forests, and pastures in three selected counties.•The correlation between forest and pasture or developed was not consistent across all years and counties.•Mostly, small and large parcels have experienced changes in all types of land cover in all years and in all three counties.•Overall, parcels in small and large ownerships had significant differences in ecological productivity.
The passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 required states to develop forestry BMPs to help reduce potential nonpoint source pollution from forest operations. Properly applied ...forestry best management practices (BMPs) have since been proven to protect water quality from forest operations. This research project reviewed BMP effectiveness studies in the U.S., assessed current state developed and implemented of forestry BMPs, and developed a simple method to estimate potential erosion from forest operations for the Piedmont physiographic region based on previous studies.
Eighty-one BMP effectiveness studies were reviewed. The review of past effectiveness studies indicates that water quality protection is increased when BMPs are implemented correctly. These effectiveness studies provide states with valuable information on how their BMP guidelines are achieving the goals defined by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
Every U.S. state has forestry BMP guidelines. These guidelines may be non-regulatory, quasi-regulatory, or regulatory depending on the state. Twenty states reported implementing non-regulatory BMP guidelines, 19 quasi-regulatory BMP guidelines, and 11 regulatory BMP guidelines. State forestry agencies were reported as being the lead agency responsible for BMP monitoring in 35 states. The national forestry BMP implementation rate was 91% (32 states). However, states did report deficiencies for specific BMP guideline categories. Supplementary to the reviewed BMP effectiveness studies, forest erosion studies in the southeastern U.S. that quantified erosion rates from forest operations were also reviewed. Erosion rates obtained from the literature were reviewed by operation categories (timber harvesting, forest roads, skid trails, log landings, stream crossings, and streamside management zones) and physiographic region (Mountains, Piedmont, Gulf Coastal Plain, and Atlantic Coastal Plain). There were numerous research gaps regarding erosion rates from forest operations for all the regions except the Piedmont region. The Piedmont region was selected for developing a method to estimate potential erosion from forest operations. This erosion estimation method is a quick and potentially useful tool for estimating potential erosion; however, it is based on limited data from the Piedmont region only. The basic method approach might be considered for the other physiographic regions, but further research is needed to fill current knowledge gaps.
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