It has been well established in mammals that circadian behavior as well as the molecular clockwork can be synchronized to the light-dark cycle via the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus ...(SCN). In addition to light, it has been demonstrated that nonphotic time cues, such as restricting the time of food availability, can alter circadian behavior and clock gene expression in selected peripheral tissues such as the liver. Studies have also suggested that scheduled physical activity (exercise) can alter circadian rhythms in behavior and clock gene expression; however, currently, the effects of exercise alone are largely unknown and have not been explored in skeletal muscle.
Period2::Luciferase (Per2::Luc) mice were maintained under 12 h of light followed by 12 h of darkness then exposed to 2 h of voluntary or involuntary exercise during the light phase for 4 wk. Control mice were left in home cages or moved to the exercise environment (sham). A second group of mice had restricted access to food (4 h · d(-1) for 2 wk) to compare the effects of two nonphotic cues on PER2::LUC bioluminescence. Skeletal muscle, lung, and SCN tissue explants were cultured for 5-6 d to study molecular rhythms.
In the exercised mice, the phase of peak PER2::LUC bioluminescence was shifted in the skeletal muscle and lung explants but not in the SCN suggesting a specific synchronizing effect of exercise on the molecular clockwork in peripheral tissues.
These data provide evidence that the molecular circadian clock in peripheral tissues can respond to the time of exercise suggesting that physical activity contributes important timing information for synchronization of circadian clocks throughout the body.
Circadian rhythms are the approximate 24-h biological cycles that function to prepare an organism for daily environmental changes. They are driven by the molecular clock, a ...transcriptional:translational feedback mechanism that in mammals involves the core clock genes Bmal1, Clock, Per1/2, and Cry1/2. The molecular clock is present in virtually all cells of an organism. The central clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) has been well studied, but the clocks in the peripheral tissues, such as heart and skeletal muscle, have just begun to be investigated. Skeletal muscle is one of the largest organs in the body, comprising approximately 45% of total body mass. More than 2300 genes in skeletal muscle are expressed in a circadian pattern, and these genes participate in a wide range of functions, including myogenesis, transcription, and metabolism. The circadian rhythms of skeletal muscle can be entrained both indirectly through light input to the SCN and directly through time of feeding and activity. It is critical for the skeletal muscle molecular clock not only to be entrained to the environment but also to be in synchrony with rhythms of other tissues. When circadian rhythms are disrupted, the observed effects on skeletal muscle include fiber-type shifts, altered sarcomeric structure, reduced mitochondrial respiration, and impaired muscle function. Furthermore, there are detrimental effects on metabolic health, including impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, which skeletal muscle likely contributes to considering it is a key metabolic tissue. These data indicate a critical role for skeletal muscle circadian rhythms for both muscle and systems health. Future research is needed to determine the mechanisms of molecular clock function in skeletal muscle, identify the means by which skeletal muscle entrainment occurs, and provide a stringent comparison of circadian gene expression across the diverse tissue system of skeletal muscle.
Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
Submitted 10 October 2008
; accepted in final form 21 November 2008
ABSTRACT
Growth and maintenance of ...skeletal muscle mass is critical for long-term health and quality of life. Skeletal muscle is a highly adaptable tissue with well-known sensitivities to environmental cues such as growth factors, cytokines, nutrients, and mechanical loading. All of these factors act at the level of the cell and signal through pathways that lead to changes in phenotype through multiple mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the animal and cell culture models used and the signaling mechanisms identified in understanding regulation of protein synthesis in response to mechanical loading/resistance exercise. Particular emphasis has been placed on 1 ) alterations in mechanical loading and regulation of protein synthesis in both in vivo animal studies and in vitro cell culture studies and 2 ) upstream mediators regulating mammalian target of rapamycin signaling and protein synthesis during skeletal muscle hypertrophy.
mechanical stretch; REDD2; overload; IGF-1; amino acids
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: K. A. Esser, Dept. of Physiology, College of Medicine, Univ. of Kentucky, 800 Rose St., UKMC MS508, Lexington, KY 40536 (e-mail: kaesse2{at}uky.edu )
Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky
Submitted 22 August 2006
; accepted in final form 20 September 2006
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of highly ...conserved, noncoding RNAs involved in posttranscriptional gene regulation. A small number of muscle-specific miRNAs have been identified and shown to have a role in myoblast proliferation and differentiation as well as embryonic muscle growth. The primary objective of the present study was to determine the expression level of the muscle-specific miRNAs in the soleus and plantaris muscles and whether their expression in the plantaris was altered in response to functional overload. Of the miRNAs examined, only miRNA-206 was differentially expressed between soleus and plantaris muscles, as reflected by the sevenfold higher expression in the soleus for both the primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) and mature miRNA (miR). Following 7 days of functional overload, transcript levels for both pri-miRNA-1-2 and pri-miRNA-133a-2 increased by 2-fold, whereas pri-miRNA-206 levels were elevated 18.3-fold. In contrast, expression of miR-1 and miR-133a were downregulated by 50% following overload. The discrepancy between pri-miRNA and miR expression following overload was not explained by a change in the expression of components of the miRNA biogenesis pathway, since Drosha and Exportin-5 transcript levels were significantly increased by 50% in response to functional overload, whereas Dicer expression remained unchanged. These results are the first to report alterations in expression of muscle-specific miRNAs in adult skeletal muscle and suggest miRNAs may have a role in the adaptation to functional overload.
gene regulation; skeletal muscle hypertrophy
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. J. McCarthy, Dept. of Physiology, Univ. of Kentucky Medical Center, 800 Rose St., Lexington, KY 40536-0298 (e-mail: jjmcca2{at}uky.edu )
Circadian disruption aggravates age-related decline and mortality. However, it remains unclear whether circadian enhancement can retard aging in mammals. We previously reported that the small ...molecule Nobiletin (NOB) activates ROR (retinoid acid receptor-related orphan receptor) nuclear receptors to potentiate circadian oscillation and protect against metabolic dysfunctions. Here we show that NOB significantly improves metabolic fitness in naturally aged mice fed with a regular diet (RD). Furthermore, NOB enhances healthy aging in mice fed with a high-fat diet (HF). In HF skeletal muscle, the NOB-ROR axis broadly activates genes for mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (MRCs) and fortifies MRC activity and architecture, including Complex II activation and supercomplex formation. These mechanisms coordinately lead to a dichotomous mitochondrial optimization, namely increased ATP production and reduced ROS levels. Together, our study illustrates a focal mechanism by a clock-targeting pharmacological agent to optimize skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration and promote healthy aging in metabolically stressed mammals.
Skeletal muscle fat infiltration (known as myosteatosis) is an ectopic fat depot that increases with aging and is recognized to negatively correlate with muscle mass, strength, and mobility and ...disrupt metabolism (insulin resistance, diabetes). An interdisciplinary workshop convened by the National Institute on Aging Division of Geriatrics and Clinical Gerontology on September 2018, discussed myosteatosis in the context of skeletal muscle function deficit (SMFD). Its purpose was to gain a better understanding of the roles of myosteatosis in aging muscles and metabolic disease, particularly its potential determinants and clinical consequences, and ways of properly assessing it. Special attention was given to functional status and standardization of measures of body composition (including the value of D
-creatine dilution method) and imaging approaches including ways to better use dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) through the shape and appearance modeling to assess lean mass, sarcopenia, and myosteatosis. The workshop convened innovative new areas of scientific relevance to light such as the effect of circadian rhythms and clock disruption in skeletal muscle structure, function, metabolism, and potential contribution to increased myosteatosis. A muscle-bone interaction perspective compared mechanisms associated with myosteatosis and bone marrow adiposity. Potential preventive and therapeutic approaches highlighted ongoing work on physical activity, myostatin treatment, and calorie restriction. Myosteatosis' impact on cancer survivors raised new possibilities to identify its role and to engage in cross-disciplinary collaboration. A wide range of research opportunities and challenges in planning for the most appropriate study design, interpretation, and translation of findings into clinical practice were discussed and are presented here.
An important unresolved question in skeletal muscle plasticity is whether satellite cells are necessary for muscle fiber hypertrophy. To address this issue, a novel mouse strain (Pax7-DTA) was ...created which enabled the conditional ablation of >90% of satellite cells in mature skeletal muscle following tamoxifen administration. To test the hypothesis that satellite cells are necessary for skeletal muscle hypertrophy, the plantaris muscle of adult Pax7-DTA mice was subjected to mechanical overload by surgical removal of the synergist muscle. Following two weeks of overload, satellite cell-depleted muscle showed the same increases in muscle mass (approximately twofold) and fiber cross-sectional area with hypertrophy as observed in the vehicle-treated group. The typical increase in myonuclei with hypertrophy was absent in satellite cell-depleted fibers, resulting in expansion of the myonuclear domain. Consistent with lack of nuclear addition to enlarged fibers, long-term BrdU labeling showed a significant reduction in the number of BrdU-positive myonuclei in satellite cell-depleted muscle compared with vehicle-treated muscle. Single fiber functional analyses showed no difference in specific force, Ca(2+) sensitivity, rate of cross-bridge cycling and cooperativity between hypertrophied fibers from vehicle and tamoxifen-treated groups. Although a small component of the hypertrophic response, both fiber hyperplasia and regeneration were significantly blunted following satellite cell depletion, indicating a distinct requirement for satellite cells during these processes. These results provide convincing evidence that skeletal muscle fibers are capable of mounting a robust hypertrophic response to mechanical overload that is not dependent on satellite cells.
1α,25(OH)(2)D(3), the active form of vitamin D(3), has been reported to regulate the cell biology of skeletal muscle. However, there has been some controversy about the expression of the vitamin D ...receptor (VDR) and thus the potential role of vitamin D(3) in skeletal muscle. In this study, we isolated and sequenced the full-length Vdr and Cyp27b1 transcripts in C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes. Western blots and immunocytochemistry confirmed protein expression in both myoblasts and myotubes clearly demonstrating that C2C12 cells express VDR and CYP27B1. To determine the vitamin D(3) action, we found that C2C12 myoblasts treated with either 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3) or 25(OH)D(3) inhibited cell proliferation and this was associated with increased Vdr expression. The observation that treatment of C2C12 myoblasts with the inactive form of vitamin D(3), 25(OH)D(3), inhibited proliferation suggested that CYP27B1 was functionally active. We used small interfering RNA to knock down Cyp27b1 in myoblasts, and cells were treated with 25(OH)D(3). The growth-suppressive effects of 25(OH)D(3) were abolished, suggesting that CYP27B1 in myoblasts is necessary for the ability of 25(OH)D(3) to affect cell proliferation. Finally, we analyzed expression of VDR and CYP27B1 in regenerating skeletal muscle in vivo. We found that expression of VDR and CYP27B1 increased significantly at day 7 of regeneration, and these results confirm the expression of Vdr and Cyp27b1 in vivo and suggest a potential role for vitamin D(3) in skeletal muscle regeneration following injury.
ABSTRACT
The musculoskeletal system evolved in mammals to perform diverse functions that include locomotion, facilitating breathing, protecting internal organs, and coordinating global energy ...expenditure. Bone and skeletal muscles involved with locomotion are both derived from somitic mesoderm and accumulate peak tissue mass synchronously, according to genetic information and environmental stimuli. Aging results in the progressive and parallel loss of bone (osteopenia) and skeletal muscle (sarcopenia) with profound consequences for quality of life. Age‐associated sarcopenia results in reduced endurance, poor balance, and reduced mobility that predispose elderly individuals to falls, which more frequently result in fracture because of concomitant osteoporosis. Thus, a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the parallel development and involution of these tissues is critical to developing new and more effective means to combat osteoporosis and sarcopenia in our increasingly aged population. This perspective highlights recent advances in our understanding of mechanisms coupling bone and skeletal muscle mass, and identify critical areas where further work is needed.
PDF
