In spite of considerable progresses in recent years, a quantitative and predictive understanding of atmospheric aerosol sources, chemical composition, transformation processes and environmental ...effects is still rather limited, and therefore represents a major research challenge in atmospheric science. This review begins with a historical perspective on the scientific questions regarding atmospheric aerosols over the past centuries, followed by a description of the distribution, sources, transformation processes, and chemical and physical properties as they are currently understood. The major open questions and suggestions for future research priorities are outlined to narrow the gap between the present understanding of the contribution of both anthropogenic and biogenic aerosols to radiative forcing resulting from the spatial non-uniformity, intermittency of sources, unresolved composition and reactivity.
► Historical perspective of atmospheric aerosols over the past centuries ► Survey of recent literature regarding aerosol sources and chemical composition ► Open questions and suggestions for future research priorities
Background
The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of an Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Protocol (ERAS) in relation to reduce the Systemic Inflammatory Response (SIR) to surgery using ...C‐reactive protein (CRP) in the first (POD1), second (POD2) and third (POD3) postoperative day.
Methods
We enrolled 121 patients (ERAS group) that underwent elective colorectal surgery with ERAS, and compared them with 135 patients (preERAS group) that had undergone surgery prior to the implementation. We made a univariate analysis to compare the CRP values in POD1, POD2, and POD3 between preERAS/ERAS group, laparoscopic/open surgery and the presence or not of Clavien Dindo complications. Multivariable lineal regression was used to assess if the ERAS had a decreasing effect on the CRP in POD1, POD2, and POD3, and was adjusted by age, male sex, use of laparoscopy, and complications.
Results
The presence of complications was independently associated with an increase in CRP values in POD1, POD2, and POD3. Laparoscopy in POD1 and POD2, and ERAS in POD2 was independently associated with a decrease in CRP values.
Conclusion
The analysis shows an increase in SIR measured as a CRP value in those patients that had complications. The SIR decreased with laparoscopy in POD1 and POD2 and with ERAS in POD2.
Saharan air masses can transport high amounts of mineral dust particles and biological material to the Iberian Peninsula. During winter, this kind of events is not very frequent and usually does not ...reach the northwest of the Peninsula. However, between 21 and 22 February 2016 and between 22 and 23 February 2017, two exceptional events were registered in León (Spain), which severely affected air quality. An integrative approach including: i) typical synoptic conditions; ii) aerosol chemical composition; iii) particle size distributions; iv) pollen concentration; v) aerosol optical depth (AOD); vi) radiative forcing and vii) estimation of the impact of aerosols in the respiratory tract, was carried out. In the global characterization of these events, the exceedance of the PM10 daily limit value, an increase in the coarse mode and a rise in the iron concentration were observed. On the 2016 event, an AOD and extinction-related Ångström exponent clearly characteristic of desert aerosol (1.1 and 0.05, respectively) were registered. Furthermore, pollen grains not typical of flowering plants in this period were identified. The chemical analysis of the aerosol from the 2017 event allowed us to confirm the presence of the main elements associated with mineral sources (aluminum, calcium, and silica concentrations). An increase in the SO42−, NO3− and Cl− concentrations during the Saharan dust intrusion was also noted. However, in this event, there was no presence of atypical pollen types. The estimated dust radiative forcing traduced a cooling effect for surface and atmosphere during both events, corroborated by trends of radiative flux measurements. The estimated impact on the respiratory tract regions of the high levels of particulate matter during both Saharan dust intrusions showed high levels for the respirable fraction.
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•Winter Saharan dust outbreaks brought pollen grains not typical of NW Spain.•Increases of columnar AOD and exceedances of the daily PM10 limit value were recorded.•PIXE analysis and aethalometer data confirmed a rise in the iron concentration.•Dusty air masses caused a decreasing of the incoming solar flux at the surface.•The respirable mass fraction was 9 times higher than those recorded the days before.
This paper studies the below-cloud scavenging caused by precipitation on ultrafine and accumulation modes, as well as the role of the different raindrop sizes in an urban environment. The equipment ...used to measure aerosol particles and raindrop variables includes a scanning mobility particle sizer spectrometer-SMPS and a Laser Precipitation Monitor (LPM), respectively. An analysis of the scavenging efficiency and the scavenging coefficient (λ) by modes and rain intensities was carried out. The main results observed have been: i) the nucleation (between 14 and 30 nm), Aitken (between 30 and 100 nm), accumulation 1 (between 100 and 300) and accumulation 2 (between 300 and 1000 nm) modes presented a scavenging efficiency of 15, 4, 22 and 21%, respectively; ii) events with rain intensities between 1 and 3 mm h−1 caused less scavenging in all modes; iii) raindrop sizes between 1.25 and 3.5 mm scavenged mainly particle sizes between 70 and 250 nm. Lower scavenging was observed on particle sizes >300 nm, and particle sizes >600 nm were only scavenged by raindrop sizes >4.75 mm; iv) the respirable fraction before and after the rain events presented a statically significant decrease of −35%. The combination in this study of SMPS and disdrometer measurements has resulted in a more detailed characterization of the influence of this process on the submicrometer aerosol fraction, noting that below-cloud scavenging is one of the main removal pathways for submicrometer aerosol particles. This study thus contributes to improving the current state of knowledge of below-cloud scavenging.
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•The role of the different raindrop sizes in the aerosol scavenging was analyzed.•Aitken mode presented the least washing with a scavenging efficiency of 4%.•The scavenging depends on the rain intensity, mainly in accumulation mode.•Raindrops between 1.25 and 3.5 mm washed mainly the particles sizes between 70 and 300 nm.•Mass respirable fraction showed a clear decrease regardless of rain intensity.
Rain intensity and raindrop size control the scavenging of ultrafine and accumulation aerosols, with raindrops of 1.25–3.5 mm being the main captors of particles between 70 and 300 nm.
The below cloud scavenging of aerosols by snow has been analysed in León (NW Spain). Six snow events were registered over the course of one year of study. Ultrafine and accumulation aerosol particles ...were measured using a scanning mobility particle sizer spectrometer, while hydrometeors were characterized using a disdrometer. Furthermore, the chemical composition of the melted snow-water samples (soluble and insoluble fractions) was analysed.
The scavenging coefficient (λ) showed a great variability among events. An effective washing of particles was observed during the first 30 min of snowfall. The mean change in the scavenging efficiency (%ΔC) of particle number concentration (PNC) and λ coefficient during this time interval were: i) nucleation mode: 36.3 % and 3.02 · 10−4 s−1; ii) Aitken mode: 30.4 % and 2.37 · 10−4 s−1 and iii) accumulation mode: 22.4 % and 1.77 · 10−4 s−1. The range of particle sizes that is less efficiently scavenged by snowfall was observed between 400 and 600 nm. When analyzing the whole snow event, an increase of PNC was observed. Two possible explanations underlie this behaviour: it could be caused by changes in air masses or by the resuspension of aerosol particles scavenged by snowflakes upon reaching the ground. A clear relationship was observed between Ca2+, SO42− and NO3− concentrations of aerosol particles before the snow event and the concentrations registered in the melted snow-water.
The largest and smallest changes in aerosol number concentrations were caused by snowflakes of 3 and 6 mm in diameter, respectively. The particle size distributions (PSD) were fitted to log-normal distributions and the parameters were compared before and after snowfall.
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•Scavenging caused by snow was studied using spectrometer and disdrometer measurements.•An effective washing of particles was observed during the first 30 min of snowfall.•An increase of aerosol concentration in all modes was registered after snowfall.•The chemical species with the highest scavenging values were Mg2+, Na+ and Cl−.•The events without effective washing showed high insoluble and low soluble carbon.
The radiative forcing before and after rain events was studied between 12 February 2016 and 14 March 2017 in León, Spain. For this purpose, the radiative forcing fluxes were calculated using the ...Radiative Transfer Model Global Atmospheric ModEl (RTM GAME). After the application of a set of selection criteria (based on the availability of AERONET data, rain characteristics and lightning maps), 16 stratiform rain events were identified, concentrated in spring and winter, and 15 convective rain events were found concentrated in spring and summer. Rainfall events were grouped according to the atmospheric forcing (ΔFATM) before rain: “low” or “high” (lower or higher than 30 W m−2). The threshold has been set at this value because it is the mean ΔFATM of all the selected events before rain. There were significant statistical differences between stratiform and convective events in rain duration, mean raindrop diameter and parameters a and b of radar reflectivity Z and rainfall intensity R relationship (Z = a Rb). When comparing “low” and “high” groups, raindrop diameter was similar in stratiform (0.51 ± 0.08 vs 0.48 ± 0.12 mm) and convective events (0.96 ± 0.98 vs 0.83 ± 0.63 mm), registering higher values for the latter. In stratiform events, the rain scavenging effect on aerosol particles is clearly observed in the “high” group with a decrease of radiative forcing of −27.0 ± 25.3%, and to a lesser extent, in the “low” group, probably because of a lower aerosol load in the atmosphere. In stratiform events, the mode of the raindrop size gamma distribution presented statistical differences between “low” (0.25 ± 0.13 mm) and “high” (0.35 ± 0.05 mm) groups. We claim that this points towards a relationship between radiative forcing before rain and the specific characteristics of rainfall measured at ground level. This study increases our knowledge on the important role of rainwater as a clean agent of the atmosphere and its impact on climate (through radiative forcing).
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•GAME model estimated radiative forcing (RF) and heating rates before and after rain•The RF change during a stratiform rain causes a mean heating rate of −0.75 K day−1.•The higher the radiative forcing before stratiform rain, the lower the raindrop mode•In convective events, no relation was found between RF before rain and rain features.
Real-time measurements of particles in the 15–736 nm range have been obtained by a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer to characterize the evolution of particle size distribution and new particle ...formation (NPF) events in an urban background area. The annual, weekly and diurnal variations of the modal (nucleation (Nnuc), Aitken (NAit) and accumulation (Nacc)) particle concentrations were characterised. The NAit and Nacc registered their maximums in cold months during rush hours, in the morning (0600–0900 UTC) and in the afternoon (1700–2000 UTC), while the maximums for Nnuc were reached in warm months during midday hours. NAit, Nacc and Ntotal showed a significant negative correlation with wind speed and a different relationship with the planetary boundary layer (PBL) height by periods. In the warm period, a positive significant correlation between PBL and Nnuc was registered, indicating that the higher dispersion promoted by a high PBL causes favourable conditions for the occurrence of NPF events (a low polluted atmosphere). NPF processes are one of the main sources of ultrafine particles (<100 nm) in the warm period. After a visual-based classification, 45 NPF events of type Ia (strong and with a good confidence level) were identified and analysed, occurring primarily between 1100 and 1500 UTC, mainly in spring and summer. In addition, a two-step method was developed for identifying NPF events: cluster analysis followed by discriminant analysis. The application of discriminant analysis to one of the clusters, grouping 93 days, enabled us to identify 55 of the 56 NPF events days included in the cluster. This method is a valuable tool for identifying NPF events quickly and effectively.
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•Nucleation mode peaks were recorded in warm period due to NPF events at midday hours.•In the warm period, the higher PBL, the higher nucleation particle concentration.•O3 and condensation sink were limiting factors for strong and clear NPF events.•A 2-step method was built for finding NPF events: a cluster plus a discriminant analysis.
Worldwide coal is still used for household heating purposes not only because it is available and cheap but also due to behavioural issues. Regional variability in fuels and combustion appliances make ...accurate emission estimates from this source hard to achieve. In the present study, gaseous (CO, VOCs, SO2 and NOX) and particulate matter (TSP) emission factors (EFs) were determined for Spanish household coal combustion covering three commercial coals and distinct combustion stages and mimicking usage patterns in real households. TSP samples were analysed to determine water-soluble inorganic ions, metal(loid)s, and organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC). Additionally, the morphology of the emitted particles was also characterised.
CO (3.43–169 g kg−1), NOX (1.29–6.00 g kg−1) and SO2 (8.96–22.3 g kg−1) EFs showed no trend regarding the combustion stage or coal type tested. On the other hand, VOC, TSP and EC EFs were higher for the ignition/devolatilisation combustion stage, regardless of the fuel tested. TSP EFs (0.085–1.08 g kg−1) increased with increasing coal volatile matter while the opposite trend was recorded for VOC emissions (0.045–3.39 gC kg−1).
TSP carbonaceous matter was dominated by EC while OC represented a small fraction of the particulate mass emitted (less than 8 %wt.). Inorganic compounds composed an important fraction of the TSP samples. Sulphate particulate mass fractions (8.66–22.9 %wt.) appeared to increase with coal S-content. Coal combustion released particles with diverse morphologies, including silicate-rich particles, ferro- and glassy-spheres. This study provides novel emission factors to update emission inventories of residential coal combustion. Additionally, detailed chemical profiles were obtained for source apportionment.
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•Gaseous and particulate emissions from the combustion of 3 types of coal were studied•Different gaseous and PM emissions were recorded over distinct combustion stages•TSP emissions appeared to be related to the coal volatile matter content•Sulphate was the major water-soluble inorganic ion for all the coal types studied•Coal combustion released silicate-rich particles, ferro- and glassy-spheres
A sampling campaign was conducted in the Liberdade Avenue tunnel (Braga, Portugal) during a week (with 56,000 vehicles) to monitor black carbon (eBC-equivalent black carbon) by means of an ...Aethalometer AE-31, and gaseous pollutants (CO2, CO, NOx). Inside the tunnel, the mean eBC mass concentration was 21 ± 10 μg m−3, reaching a maximum hourly value of 49.0 μg m−3. An hourly and weekday-weekend study was carried out. Regarding the Absorption Ångström exponent (AAE), a mean value of 0.97 ± 0.10 was obtained, for a source of practically pure traffic. There was a positive significant correlation between eBC and the number of light vehicles (r = 0.47; p < 0.001) and between eBC and the gaseous emissions: CO (r = 0.67; p < 0.001), CO2 (r = 0.71; p < 0.001), NO (r = 0.63; p < 0.001) and NO2 (r = 0.70; p < 0.001). The mean black carbon emission factors (EFBC) inside the tunnel were 0.31 ± 0.08 g (kg fuel)−1 and 0.11 ± 0.08 mg veh−1 km−1, similar to those found in other studies for gasoline and diesel vehicles in road tunnels.
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•Black carbon and gaseous pollutants were measured in a tunnel during a week.•The mean eBC concentration (21 μg m−3) was close to the daily PM2.5 limit set by WHO.•A mean AAE470–950 of 0.97 ± 0.10 was obtained for a source of almost pure traffic.•A positive correlation between eBC, traffic flow and gaseous pollutants was found.•The mean eBC emission factor inside the tunnel was 0.11 ± 0.08 mg vehicle−1 km−1.
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