Emocionalno plakanje odnosi se na ispuštanje suza iz oka koje se tipično pojavljuje pri intenzivnim emocionalnim reakcijama, uglavnom negativnima, ali nerijetko i pozitivnima. Učinci plakanja mogu se ...podijeliti na intraindividualne, koji se odnose na utjecaj plakanja na osobu koja plače, i na interindividualne, koji se odnose na njegov utjecaj na promatrače. U radu su predstavljena istraživanja i teorijski doprinosi povezani s intraindividualnim učincima plakanja koji se u pravilu odnose na promjene u raspoloženju nakon plakanja. Posebna je pažnja posvećena metodološkim aspektima istraživanja učinaka plakanja na raspoloženje te su ponuđena pojedina nova, alternativna objašnjenja opisanih nalaza. Ukratko su opisani i potencijalni mehanizmi koji bi mogli posredovati između plakanja i promjena u raspoloženju, kao i relevantne individualne razlike u tim povezanostima. Najčvršći dokazi o postojanju utjecaja plakanja na raspoloženje povezani su s promjenama u raspoloženju posredovanima pozitivnim reakcijama socijalne okoline. S druge strane, empirijska je podrška izravnim utjecajima plakanja na raspoloženje nekonzistentna. Budući da je za razumijevanje intraindividualnih učinaka plakanja nužno i razumijevanje i njegovih interindividualnih učinaka, što se povezuje s predloženim evoluiranim funkcijama plakanja, dio rada bavi se i komunikacijskim funkcijama plakanja. Osnovni je argument koji se provlači kroz rad da su potencijalni izravni intraindividualni učinci plakanja koji povećavaju subjektivnu dobrobit pojedinca usko povezani s interindividualnim funkcijama plakanja i da se jedino razumijevanjem evoluirane signalne funkcije plakanja mogu razumjeti procesi kroz koje plakanje može utjecati na subjektivnu dobrobit. U skladu s time na kraju je rada predstavljen pokušaj teorijske integracije inter- i intraindividualnih funkcija i s njima povezanih učinaka plakanja.
Emotional crying can be defined as shedding tears from the eye, which typically occurs during intensive emotional reactions, mostly negative, but also positive ones. Its effects can be divided into intra-individual, that pertain to the effects of crying on the individual him/herself, and inter-individual, that pertain to the effects that crying exerts on the observers. The current paper offers an overview of the relevant research and theoretical contributions pertinent to intra-individual effects of tears that mostly involve mood changes following crying. Special attention is devoted to methodological aspects of the studies and several alternative explanations of described results are offered. Potential mechanisms mediating between crying and mood are described, together with individual differences in these effects. The strongest evidence regarding the effects of crying on mood pertains to mood changes that are the consequence of other individuals' positive responses to one's tears. Empirical support for the direct effects of crying on mood is inconsistent. Since the understanding of the intra-individual effects of crying requires the understanding of its inter-individual effects, the paper also deals with evolved communication functions of crying. The key argument of the current contribution is that the potential direct intra-individual effects of crying that increase individual well-being are closely related to the inter-individual functions of tears. Only through the understanding of the evolved functions of tears it is possible to understand the processes through which crying impacts individual’s well-being. In line with that, an attempt of theoretical integration of inter- and intra-individual functions has been made.
There are six purpose-built Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) personality questionnaires currently in use to measure the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS), the behavioural inhibition system ...(BIS), and the behavioural approach system (BAS). They differ in their conceptualizations and operational constructs, and this poses a problem for their differential validity and the generalizability of results, and comparison of results from different studies. This paper examined the psychometric properties of five of these RST questionnaires, with a total sample of 821 participants, taken from the factor structures for the Croatian translations of BIS/BAS scales, SPSRQ, Jackson-5, RSQ and RST-PQ. Data were analysed by correlational and confirmatory factor analyses. We found some of these questionnaires achieved marginal to adequate fit indices, and they showed ambiguity in terms of convergent validity for all three general behavioural systems. These findings highlight the difficulties with generalization and comparison of results with the use of different RST questionnaires. Based on these findings, as well as the ongoing debate concerning how best to measure RST constructs, we provide information on how to interpret results from the studies conducted with different RST scales.
•Five RST personality questionnaires are compared.•They cannot be used interchangeable and interpret as they are synonymous.•The BAS should not be studied as a unidimensional construct.•The BIS, Flight and Freeze, and Fight scales are more congruent.•The operational definition of the Fight scales does not meet the RST criteria.
Crying is a uniquely human behavior, the functions of which are at present not completely understood. We hypothesized that tears promote the perception of morally relevant traits and states such as ...sincerity, honesty, and remorse, which facilitate social bonding and we, therefore, predicted that tears would reduce the punishments proposed for transgressors. Participants were exposed to photographs of tearful people and the same pictures with the tears digitally removed, together with brief descriptions of everyday transgressions (Study 1,
N
= 71) and crimes (Study 2;
N
= 359). The dependent variables were the judgment of the model’s emotionality (Study 1), sincerity (situational in Study 1 and trait in Study 2), and kindness, remorse, and proposed punishment (Study 2 only). As expected, models with visible tears were rated as more emotional and reliable and were also judged as kinder and more remorseful than tearless transgressors. However, the more positive perception of tearful transgressors only translated into more lenient punishment in the case of drunk driving. In conclusion, although tears make transgressors appear more sincere, reliable, kind and remorseful, they do not necessarily affect proposed punishments for the transgression.
Cilj je provedenog istraživanja bio ispitati faktorsku strukturu Petofacetnog upitnika usredotočene svjesnosti (FFMQ, Baer i sur., 2006) na hrvatskom uzorku i utvrditi odnose usredotočene svjesnosti ...s relevantnim kriterijima. Uz ispitivanje originalne i alternativnih faktorskih struktura FFMQ-a ispitana je i njegova povezanost s iskustvom u meditaciji, neki aspekti konvergentno-divergentne valjanosti (povezanost s crtama ličnosti petofaktorskog modela) te prediktivna i inkrementalna valjanost u objašnjenju emocionalnog reagiranja na jednostavne podražaje. Ukupno 242 ispitanika iz populacije studenata i opće populacije od 18 do 68 godina popunilo je FFMQ, Petofaktorski inventar ličnosti (BFI, Benet-Martinez i John, 1998) i mjeru emocionalnog reagiranja operacionaliziranog kao evaluacija prezentiranih riječi na dimenzijama valencije i uzbuđenja, odnosno intenziteta afektivnog odgovora. Rezultati su pokazali da (1) iako sve facete FFMQ-a imaju primjerenu pouzdanost, najprikladnije faktorsko rješenje predstavlja četverofaktorski hijerarhijski model s jednim faktorom višeg reda, u kojem je izostavljen faktor opažanja, a moguće je koristiti i svih pet faktora, ali u tom slučaju bez podrazumijevanja faktora višeg reda; (2) uz kontrolu svih relevantnih varijabli postoje značajne razlike između praktikanata i nepraktikanata meditacije na svim facetama FFMQ-a osim facete opisivanja, kao i na ukupnom rezultatu FFMQ-a; (3) dobivene su niske do umjerene očekivane povezanosti faceta FFMQ-a s dimenzijama petofaktorskog modela; (4) povezanosti faceta FFMQ-a i emocionalnog reagiranja niske su, očekivano snažnije za negativne u odnosu na pozitivne podražaje i smjer im varira ovisno o vrsti facete i vrsti podražaja, pri čemu (5) faceta neprosuđivanja ima inkrementalnu valjanost povrh dimenzija petofaktorskog modela ličnosti jedino u predikciji percepcije intenziteta negativnih podražaja. Raspravljena su moguća objašnjenja i implikacije dobivenih rezultata.
We explored factor structure of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ, Baer et al., 2006) in a Croatian sample and its relationship with relevant criteria. In addition to testing of the original and alternative factor structures of FFMQ, we also tested its relationship with meditation experience, as well as some aspects of convergent-divergent validity (relationship with Five-factor model personality dimensions) and its predictive and incremental validity in explaining emotional responses to simple stimuli. In a sample of 244 participants (ages 18 – 68) from a population of university students and general population, we administered FFMQ, Big Five Inventory (BFI, Benet-Martinez & John, 1998), and a measure of emotional responding operationalized as evaluation of different words on valence and arousal/emotional intensity dimensions. The results showed that: 1. Although all FFMQ facets do have adequate reliability, it was a four-four factor hierarchical model, without facet Observe and with one higher-order factor that represented the most acceptable factor solution. A solution with five factors was also acceptable, but without a corresponding higher-order factor; 2. After controlling for all potentially confounding variables, significant differences between individuals with and without meditation experience in all FFMQ facets except the Describe facet, as well as in FFMQ composite, were found; 3. Several low to moderate, expected correlations between FFMQ facets and Five-factor model personality dimensions were observed; 4. Correlations between FFMQ facets and emotional responding were low and, expectedly, larger for negative than for positive stimuli, with direction of correlation being different for different facets and types of stimuli; and 5. The Nonjudge facet showed incremental validity above the Five-factor model dimensions only when predicting the intensity of negative stimuli. Potential explanations and implications of such results were discussed.
El objetivo de este trabajo fue examinar la estructura factorial del Cuestionario de cinco facetas de la conciencia plena (FFMQ, Baer y col., 2006) en la muestra croata y determinar la relación entre la conciencia plena y los criterios relevantes. Se han examinado las estructuras factoriales originales y alternativas de FFMQ, tanto como su conexión con experiencias en la meditación, algunos aspectos de la validez convergente-divergente (relacionada con los rasgos de personalidad de los cinco grandes) y la validez predicativa e incremental para explicar la reacción emocional a estimulaciones simples. Un total de 242 examinados a la edad entre 18 y 68 años (estudiantes y populación general) ha completado FFMQ, Inventario de los cinco grandes (BFI, Benet-Martinez y John, 1998) y la medida de reacción emocional hecha como evaluación de palabras presentadas en las dimensiones de valencia y excitación, o sea, intensidad de la respuesta afectiva. Los resultados han demostrado que 1) aunque todas las facetas de FFMQ tienen una fiabilidad adecuada, la resolución factorial más adecuada sería el modelo jerárquico de cuatro factores con un modelo del orden superior, en el que se omite Observación, pero se pueden utilizar también todos los cinco factores, sólo que en este caso sin un factor del orden superior; 2) si se controlan todas las variables relevantes, se notan diferencias significativas en todas las facetas de FFMQ, menos en la faceta de Descripción y en resultado total de FFMQ, entre los que practican la meditación y los que no lo hacen; 3) se han obtenido conexiones esperadas bajas y moderadas entre las facetas FFMQ y las dimensiones del modelo de los cinco grandes; 4) las conexiones entre las facetas FFMQ y la reacción emocional son bajas, más fuertes para las estimulaciones negativas en comparación con las positivas y su dirección varía dependiendo del tipo de faceta y del tipo de estimulación, en lo que 5) la faceta de la Falta de deliberación tiene una validez incremental más allá de las dimensiones del modelo de los cinco grandes sólo en la predicción de la percepción de la intensidad de estimulaciones negativas. Se discuten posibles explicaciones e implicaciones de resultados obtenidos.
The nature of approach motivation has not yet been adequately defined. Some authors view it as a unidimensional construct, while others consider it to be multidimensional. Its psychometric nature is ...explored in this study, which tests empirically the motivational account of the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) within an evolutionary context. In a sample of 394 participants, we administered the Assessment of Individual Motives questionnaire (AIM-Q), the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) and a short version of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward (SPSRQ-20). The results of set correlation analysis indicated that different BAS scales relate to different motives, thus supporting the multidimensional perspective on approach motivation. Specifically, Reward Interest relates to various types of motives that generally reflect sensitivity to social rewards; Goal-Drive Persistence relates to social exchange; Reward Reactivity to safety and commitment; while Impulsivity and Sensitivity to Reward (SR) relate to competitive motives. These results are discussed within an evolutionary framework for the multidimensionality of the BAS.
•Multidimensional perspective of the BAS is studied within evolutionary psychology.•Reward Interest generally reflect sensitivity to social rewards.•Goal Drive Persistence relates to social exchange.•Reward Reactivity relates to safety and commitment.•Impulsivity and SR relate to competitive motives.
Emotional tears have been proposed to serve as a signal of distress, appeasement, and helplessness, which promotes prosocial responses in observers. They may also facilitate the perception of ...sadness. A still unanswered question is what information tears convey about emotional states when they are combined with different muscular facial expressions. The current study evaluated three hypotheses: Tears facilitate inferences about (a) emotion intensity in general (b) sadness in particular, or (c) helplessness-related appraisal and behavioral intentions. In the first experiment, participants viewed pictures of (non)tearful real and artificial faces displaying anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, and neutral state. They had to report which of the seven expressions they recognized, and to rate its intensity, sincerity, and felt empathy. Tears appeared to facilitate the perception of sadness, but also of anger and fear, while they decreased the perception of disgust and surprise. The ratings of the intensity, the perceived sincerity, and the experienced empathy followed a similar pattern. In the second experiment, participants had to indicate if briefly (50 ms) presented (non)tearful faces showed a particular expression, and we measured their accuracy and reaction times. The results of the first experiment were not corroborated. Overall, the findings lend most support to the appraisal/behavioral intentions hypothesis and less support for the intensity and the sadness enhancement hypotheses.
Why Only Humans Shed Emotional Tears Gracanin, Asmir; Bylsma, Lauren M; Vingerhoets, Ad J. J. M
Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.),
06/2018, Letnik:
29, Številka:
2
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Producing emotional tears is a universal and uniquely human behavior. Until recently, tears have received little serious attention from scientists. Here, we summarize recent theoretical developments ...and research findings. The evolutionary approach offers a solid ground for the analysis of the functions of tears. This is especially the case for infant crying, which we address in the first part of this contribution. We further elaborate on the antecedents and (intra- and interpersonal) functions of emotional tears in adults. The main hypothesis that emerges from this overview is that crying evolved as an emotional expression that signals distress and promotes prosocial behaviors in conspecifics. Further, shedding tears may influence the mood of the crier and his/her outlook on life primarily as a consequence of fulfillment of the proposed signaling function of tears. We also describe how cultural phenomena such as ritual weeping nicely fit within this framework, as they often aim to support a request for help to a powerful person or deity and promote social bonding.
Emotional tears have been proposed to represent a robust affiliative signal whose main function is to promote the willingness to help the crying individual. However, little is known about the ...psychological mechanisms at the basis of such responses. To investigate whether tears facilitate approach relative to avoidance tendencies, we exposed participants (N = 77) to pictures of faces with and without visible tears, in two different approach–avoidance tasks. In the first task, participants were instructed to either move toward tearful faces and away from nontearful faces, or the other way around, by using a joystick. In the second task, participants made approaching or avoiding responses to tearful and nontearful faces by pressing buttons. The results suggest that tears facilitate behavior that reduces the distance between the observer and the crying person. However, while tears appear to promote approach relative to avoidance behavior, the current findings do not allow firm conclusions about whether tears specifically facilitate approach or rather block avoidance tendencies in observers, or whether they possibly have both effects. Findings are discussed in the context of tears’ ability to act as a prosocial stimulus that signals non-aggressive intentions, as well as in the context of the functional goals that predispose humans to approach or avoid crying individuals.
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) measures habitual use of two emotion regulation strategies, cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. The present study tested the psychometric ...properties and validity of a newly developed Croatian adaptation of the ERQ. In a sample of 347 participants, we first sought to confirm the ERQ's original factor structure. Next, we tested its convergent, divergent and incremental validity. In the first subsample (N = 140), we linked the ERQ with a measure of the Five‐Factor Model dimensions and their facets (Revised NEO Personality Inventory). In the second subsample (N = 207), we tested its ability to predict personality dimensions assessed by a different measure (Big Five Inventory) as well as the traits of positive and negative affect, including its incremental validity in predicting the latter. The results corroborated earlier findings, showing that the Croatian ERQ has equivalent psychometrics and predictive validity as ERQs in other languages. Crucially, the observed links between the ERQ and the facets of the Five‐Factor Model dimensions enrich our understanding of the personality mechanisms behind the employment of these emotion regulation strategies.
Previous research (Laeng et al., 2007) conducted on Norwegian samples showed that blue-eyed men rate blue-eyed women as more attractive, while brown-eyed men and all the women show no differences in ...attractiveness assessments with respect to eye colour. Correspondingly, positive assortative mating was found for blue, but not brown eyes, and it most often occurred in blue-eyed men. We aimed to replicate this blue-like-blue effect in the Croatian population, which differs in the ratio of eye colour phenotypes (blue eye colour is the most prevalent in Norway while brown is the most prevalent in Croatia). Additionally, we examined whether this effect is moderated by life history strategies and sociosexuality. Our hypothesis was that the effect would be larger in those blue-eyed men who exert a slower life history strategy and who are sociosexually restrictive. One hundred and twenty-eight participants assessed the attractiveness of blue-eyed and brown-eyed models, whose eye colours were experimentally manipulated in such a way that participants were shown models with natural or artificially changed eye colours. The blue-like-blue effect was replicated in the context of preferences, although it was smaller than in the original study. However, unlike the original study, in a sample of 138 participants no assortative pairing by eye colour was found between participants and their romantic partners. Finally, the hypothesis about the moderation was supported for life history strategies, but not for sociosexuality. In addition to the rationale for the blue-like-blue effect based on the paternity uncertainty account, which was offered by the authors of the original study, we discussed other accounts of this phenomenon.
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