Goal-setting theory states that challenging, specific, and concrete goals (i.e., subordinate goals) are powerful motivators and boost performance in goal pursuit more than vague or abstract goals ...(i.e., superordinate goals). Goal-setting theory predominantly focuses on single, short-term goals and less on broad, long-term challenges. This review article extends goal-setting theory and argues that superordinate goals also fulfill a crucial role in motivating behavior, particularly when addressing broad, long-term challenges. The purpose of this article is to shed light on the benefits of superordinate goals, which have received less attention in research, and to show theoretically that people pursue long-term goals more successfully when they focus on subordinate as well as superordinate goals than when they focus on either subordinate or superordinate goals alone.
Studies on how one behavior affects subsequent behaviors find evidence for two opposite trends: Sometimes a first behavior increases the likelihood of engaging in additional behaviors that contribute ...to the same goal (positive behavioral spillover), and at other times a first behavior decreases this likelihood (negative spillover). A factor that may explain both patterns is attitude strength. A stronger (more favorable) attitude toward an issue may make the connections between related behaviors more salient and increase the motivation to work toward the underlying goal. We predicted that people with a stronger (more favorable) attitude are more likely to engage in subsequent behaviors that address an issue they care about. Two experiments tested the prediction in the contexts of pro-environmental and health behavior. Study 1 (
= 378) provided some support for the predicted moderating role of attitude toward the environment when participants recalled either an environmentally friendly or unfriendly action: A strong attitude increased the likelihood, whereas a weak attitude decreased the likelihood of carrying out successive goal-conducive behaviors. When compared to a neutral control condition in Study 2 (
= 929), participants with a weak environmental attitude supported pro-environmental petitions
strongly after an environmentally harmful action. Support for such petitions did not waver, however, among participants with a strong environmental attitude: They consistently acted environmentally friendly. Contrary to the hypothesis, in neither study did strength of attitude toward personal health moderate the effect of an initial behavior in the expected direction. In sum, the two studies provided only limited evidence for behavioral spillover: Participants mostly acted in accordance with their attitude but were hardly affected by recalling previous actions. When behavioral spillover did occur, however, a strong environmental attitude tended to increase the likelihood of acting in an environmentally friendly way, whereas the behavior of those with a weak attitude was less predictable. This research contributes to a more nuanced theoretical understanding of the role of attitude in spillover, but provides only limited evidence for its role as a moderator.
Behavioral change interventions often focus on a specific behavior over a limited time period; for example, a bike-to-work intervention that incentivizes cycling to work over 2 months. While such ...interventions can successfully initiate behavior, they run the risk of triggering negative spillover effects after completion: Reaching the end of an intervention could reduce the motivation to maintain the behavior; or an increase in the targeted behavior (e.g., cycling to work more often) could lead to negative spillover across behaviors (e.g., cycling less in leisure time). Using a goal theoretical perspective, we tested whether an intervention focusing on a specific behavior during a limited time period (a subordinate goal) triggers negative spillover, and whether superordinate goals and/or action steps reduce negative or promote positive spillover. We conducted an experimental field study (
= 1,269) in the context of a bike-to-work campaign with a longitudinal multilevel design. Participants across all four experimental conditions had the campaign goal of cycling to work for a maximum of 2 months (a subordinate goal). A quarter of the participants additionally generated superordinate goals, a quarter action steps and a quarter superordinate goals
action steps. The last quarter was a control condition which only set the subordinate campaign goal. Surprisingly, the intervention caused no negative and some positive spillover effects. Participants increased the frequency of cycling to work across all groups and the increase could be maintained up to 2 months after the campaign. An increase in cycling to work spilled over to an increase in cycling in leisure time and to an increase in eating fruits and vegetables. No spillover effects were found regarding exercising and eating sweets and snacks. Participants focusing additionally on a superordinate goal cycled to work more frequently at the end of the campaign than the control group. Contrary to our expectations, the maintenance of cycling to work over time and the positive spillover effects across behaviors did not differ due to the goal manipulation. These results reduce the concern that interventions focusing on a subordinate goal could trigger negative spillover effects and show the need for additional experimental field studies.
Background
Good hand hygiene adherence is a key factor in the prevention of hospital-acquired infections. The guidelines offered by the World Health Organization for interventions to improve hand ...hygiene adherence in human health care can only in part be applied to veterinary medicine, and current observations of hygiene adherence in veterinary environments stress a need for decisive action. There is great potential for improvement, especially in situations in which people act habitually.
Focus of the Article
The focus of this article is to identify the barriers and benefits that influence hand hygiene habits in veterinary care facilities and to derive intervention strategies to promote hand hygiene habits informed by theory and formative research.
Research Question
This article examines two research questions. What contextual, social, and personal factors promote (benefits) and hinder (barriers) hand hygiene habits in veterinary care facilities? Which intervention strategies can be derived from the identified barriers and benefits to foster hand hygiene habits?
Approach
The identification of the target behavior and group was based on the literature, talks within the author team, and daily observations. Barriers and benefits were identified by means of qualitative focus groups. The focus group interview schedule was informed by the risks, attitudes, norms, abilities, and self-regulation (RANAS) approach. The intervention strategy was based on the elicited barriers and benefits and guided by the framework of habit formation.
Importance to the Social Marketing Field
For the first time, barriers and benefits regarding hand hygiene habits were systematically elicited in a small animal clinic in Switzerland. The article focuses on hand hygiene as a habit and offers evidence-based and behavior-oriented intervention strategies. Our findings can thus be used as a basis for developing a theoretically sound intervention to promote hand hygiene habits in veterinary clinics and practices and serve as a springboard for future social marketing research, especially with a focus on habit formation.
Methods
Primary data were gathered using eight structured in-depth focus group interviews (N = 32 participants) in a small animal clinic in Switzerland. Two focus groups each were conducted with the following professional groups: veterinary assistants, students, residents and interns, and senior clinicians.
Results
The overarching theme across the participants’ talk was that building habits is promising but challenging to implement. In examining the key barriers and benefits, five themes were discussed: (1) animal welfare as a reason to act, (2) not about the why but about the how, (3) clash of generations, (4) lack of feedback mechanisms, and (5) the invisible enemy. Strategies were derived based on these findings and the theoretical framework of a habit formation intervention.
Recommendations for Practice and Research
The themes that emerged in the focus groups are connected to the theoretical framework of habit formation to derive possible intervention strategies. The supplemental material delves into these strategies and provides implementation steps for practitioners facing a similar challenge. Further research is needed to experimentally test the effect of the intervention strategies and to validate the results for other clinics.
Background
New Year's Eve is a time when people make resolutions, but, more often than not, fail to achieve them. Previous research highlighted the positive effect of subordinate goals in goal ...pursuit. We argue that combining superordinate and subordinate goals contributes to successful goal pursuit, especially in the long run. We test whether a simultaneous focus on both goal types helps people to keep their resolutions.
Methods
Using a 2 × 2 between‐subjects design, participants (N = 256) formulated a resolution from which they derived either a superordinate (yes/no) or a subordinate goal (yes/no). The control group focused exclusively on a self‐set resolution. Main outcome measures were effort in goal pursuit and intentions to further pursue the goal after 3 months.
Results
Focusing on superordinate and subordinate goals increased the amount of effort invested in goal pursuit. A group difference was found only between the group focusing on both goal types and the group focusing on a superordinate goal. No statement could be made about intentions for further goal pursuit and processes by which goal type affects goal pursuit.
Conclusion
The study provides preliminary insights into how combining superordinate and subordinate goals may be a helpful strategy to pursue long‐term goals.
Although regular physical activity is associated with numerous health benefits, many people are not sufficiently active. Interventions that aim to increase physical activity rely mainly on concrete, ..."subordinate" goals. Based on a goal-theoretical perspective, we argue that combining goals at different levels of abstraction may foster successful goal pursuit, particularly in the long run. In the present study, all participants committed to the subordinate goal of exercising three times per week for three weeks. We used a 2 × 2 between-subjects design to assign participants to an additional superordinate goal, concrete action steps, or both; a control group focused solely on the subordinate goal. The main outcome was exercise frequency, which was measured (a) in the short term, i.e., during the three-week intervention period, using self-reports and electronic data; and (b) in the long term, i.e., during a six-month follow-up period, using electronic data. For the self-reported frequency in the short term, the results show an interaction between a superordinate goal and action steps: In the absence of action steps, a superordinate goal had a negative effect, but this negative effect dissolved when action steps were present. Similarly, action steps exerted a positive effect in the presence of a superordinate goal, but this effect dissolved in the absence of a superordinate goal. Goal manipulation had no significant influence either in the short or long term for electronically measured exercise frequency. Possible explanations for the observed effects and the differences between self-reported and electronically measured exercise frequencies are discussed.
Purpose
Cyberattacks have become a major threat to small and medium-sized enterprises. Their prevention efforts often prioritize technical solutions over human factors, despite humans posing the ...greatest risk. This article highlights the importance of developing tailored behavioral interventions. Through qualitative interviews, we identified three persona types with different psychological biases that increase the risk of cyberattacks. These psychological biases are a basis for creating behavioral interventions to strengthen the human factor and, thus, prevent cyberattacks.
Design/methodology/approach
We conducted structured, in-depth interviews with 44 employees, decision makers and IT service providers from small and medium-sized Swiss enterprises to understand insecure cyber behavior.
Findings
A thematic analysis revealed that, while knowledge about cyber risks is available, no one assumes responsibility for employees’ and decision makers’ behavior. The interview results suggest three personas for employees and decision makers: experts, deportees and repressors. We have derived corresponding biases from these three persona types that help explain the interviewees’ insecure cyber behavior.
Research limitations/implications
This study provides evidence that employees differ in their cognitive biases. This implies that tailored interventions are more effective than one-size-fits7-all interventions. It is inherent in the idea of tailored interventions that they depend on multiple factors, such as cultural, organizational or individual factors. However, even if the segments change somewhat, it is still very likely that there are subgroups of employees that differ in terms of their misleading cognitive biases and risk behavior.
Practical implications
This article discusses behavior directed recommendations for tailored interventions in small and medium-sized enterprises to minimize cyber risks.
Originality/value
The contribution of this study is that it is the first to use personas and cognitive biases to understand insecure cyber behavior, and to explain why small and medium-sized enterprises do not implement behavior-based cybersecurity best practices. The personas and biases provide starting points for future research and interventions in practice.
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