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•Nuclear receptor–DNA complexes are highly dynamic: open or closed conformation.•Both heterodimeric and homodimeric receptors form asymmetric DNA binding complexes.•An intimate ...contact between different domains determines receptor activity on DNA.
While the structures of the DNA- and ligand-binding domains of many nuclear receptors have been determined in great detail; the mechanisms by which these domains interact and possibly ‘communicate’ is still under debate. The first crystal structures of receptor dimers bound to ligand, DNA and coactivator peptides provided new insights in this matter. The observed binding modes revealed exciting new interaction surfaces between the different nuclear receptor domains. Such interfaces are proposed to be the route through which allosteric signals from the DNA are passed on to the ligand-binding domain and the activating functions of the receptor. The structural determinations of DNA-bound receptor dimers in solution, however, revealed an extended structure of the receptors. Here, we discuss these apparent contradictory structural data and their possible implications for the functioning of nuclear receptors.
The androgen receptor (AR) plays a crucial role in normal physiology, development and metabolism as well as in the aetiology and treatment of diverse pathologies such as androgen insensitivity ...syndromes (AIS), male infertility and prostate cancer (PCa). Here we show that dimerization of AR ligand-binding domain (LBD) is induced by receptor agonists but not by antagonists. The 2.15-Å crystal structure of homodimeric, agonist- and coactivator peptide-bound AR-LBD unveils a 1,000-Å
large dimerization surface, which harbours over 40 previously unexplained AIS- and PCa-associated point mutations. An AIS mutation in the self-association interface (P767A) disrupts dimer formation in vivo, and has a detrimental effect on the transactivating properties of full-length AR, despite retained hormone-binding capacity. The conservation of essential residues suggests that the unveiled dimerization mechanism might be shared by other nuclear receptors. Our work defines AR-LBD homodimerization as an essential step in the proper functioning of this important transcription factor.
The androgen receptor (AR) and glucocorticoid, progestagen, and mineralocorticoid receptors all recognize classical DNA response elements that are organized as inverted repeats of 5′-AGAACA-3′-like ...motifs with a three-nucleotide spacer. Next to such elements, the AR also recognizes a second type of androgen response element (ARE), the so-called selective AREs, which resemble more the direct repeats of the same hexamer. In this work, we show that not only the AR but also the progestagen receptor can recognize the selective AREs, whereas neither glucocorticoid nor mineralocorticoid receptor can. Recently, genomic AR-binding fragments have been postulated to contain AR-binding sites that diverge considerably from the classical ARE consensus. Extensive mutational analyses of these candidate motifs, however, reinstalls the values of the consensus sequence for the AREs as mentioned above, the importance of their dimeric nature and the presence of exactly three-nucleotide spacing. We developed a position-specific probability matrix that was used to predict with higher accuracy new AREs in different AR-binding regions. So far, all AR-binding genomic fragments that were analyzed contain AREs defined as receptor-dimer binding motifs with the ability to confer responsiveness to a reporter gene.
We developed a position-specific probability matrix from old and new androgen response elements which can successfully be used to accurately analyze high throughput data.
Androgen deprivation is the mainstay therapy for metastatic prostate cancer (PCa). Another way of suppressing androgen receptor (AR) signaling is via AR antagonists or antiandrogens. Despite being ...frequently prescribed in clinical practice, there is conflicting evidence concerning the role of AR antagonists in the management of PCa. In the castration-resistant settings of PCa, docetaxel has been the only treatment option for decades. With recent evidence that castration-resistant PCa is far from AR-independent, there has been an increasing interest in developing new AR antagonists. This review gives a concise overview of the clinically available antiandrogens and the experimental AR antagonists that tackle androgen action with a different approach.
The majority of prostate cancers are hormone-dependent at diagnosis highlighting the central role of androgen signalling in this disease. Surprisingly, most forms of castration-resistant prostate ...cancer (CRPC) are still dependent on the androgen receptor (AR) for survival. Therefore, the advent of new AR-targeting drugs, such as enzalutamide, is certainly beneficial for the many patients with metastatic CRPC. Indeed, this compound provides a substantial survival benefit-but it is not curative. This Perspectives article describes the different ways through which cancer cells can become resistant to enzalutamide, such as AR truncation and other mutations, as well as by-pass of the AR dependence of prostate cancer cells through expression of the glucocorticoid receptor. The clinical relevance of these mechanisms and emerging questions concerning new therapeutic regimens in the treatment of metastatic CRPC are being discussed.
Several key functions of the androgen receptor (AR) such as hormone recognition and co-regulator recruitment converge in the ligand binding domain (LBD). Loss- or gain-of-function of the AR ...contributes to pathologies such as the androgen insensitivity syndrome and prostate cancer. Here, we describe a gain-of-function mutation of the surface-exposed threonine at position 850, located at the amino-terminus of Helix 10 (H10) in the AR LBD. Since T850 phosphorylation was reported to affect AR function, we created the phosphomimetic mutation T850D. The AR T850D variant has a 1.5- to 2-fold increased transcriptional activity with no effect on ligand affinity. In the androgen responsive LNCaP cell line grown in medium with low androgen levels, we observed a growth advantage for cells in which the endogenous AR was replaced by AR T850D. Despite the distance to the AF2 site, the AR T850D LBD displayed an increased affinity for coactivator peptides as well as the
FQNLF
motif of AR itself. Molecular Dynamics simulations confirm allosteric transmission of the T850D mutation towards the AF2 site via extended hydrogen bond formation between coactivator peptide and AF2 site. This mechanistic study thus confirms the gain-of-function character of T850D and T850 phosphorylation for AR activity and reveals details of the allosteric communications within the LBD.
► All nuclear receptors bind monomeric or dimeric 5′-AGAACA-3′ or 5′-AGGTCA-3′ hexamers. ► High throughput definition of binding sites confirm the classical DNA binding rules. ► Dimerization of ...steroid receptors on DNA is asymmetrical. ► The DNA sequence can control a nuclear receptor through allosteric signaling.
The gene family of nuclear receptors is characterized by the presence of a typical, well conserved DNA-binding domain. In general, two zinc coordinating modules are folded such that an α-helix is inserted in the major groove of the DNA-helix displaying a sequence similar to one of two hexameric consensus motifs. Both zinc molecules coordinate four cysteines. Although the DNA-binding domains as well as the hormone response elements are very similar, each nuclear receptor will affect transcription of a specific set of target genes. This is in part due to some important receptor-specific variations on the general theme of DNA interaction.
For most nuclear receptors, the DNA-binding domain dimerizes on DNA, which explains why most hormone response elements consist of a repeat of two hexamers. The hexamer dimers can be organized either as direct, inverted or everted repeats with spacers of varying lengths. The DNA can be bound by homodimers, heterodimers and for some orphan receptors, as monomer.
Another key element for DNA binding by nuclear receptors is the carboxy-terminal extension of the DNA-binding domain extending into the hinge region. This part not only co-determines sequence specificity, but also affects other functions of the receptors like nuclear translocation, intranuclear mobility and transactivation potential. Moreover, allosteric signals passing through towards other receptor domains, explain why to some extent, the DNA elements can also be considered as controlling ligands.
ABSTRACT
Androgens have well‐established anabolic actions on skeletal muscle, although the direct effects of the androgen receptor (AR) in muscle remain unclear. We generated satellite cell‐specific ...AR‐knockout (satARKO) mice in which the AR is selectively ablated in satellite cells, the muscle precursor cells. Total‐limb maximal grip strength is decreased by 7% in satARKO mice, with soleus muscles containing ~10% more type I fibers and 10% less type IIa fibers than the corresponding control littermates. The weight of the perineal levator ani muscle is markedly reduced (–52%). Thus, muscle AR is involved in fiber‐type distribution and force production of the limb muscles, while it is a major determinant of the perineal muscle mass. Surprisingly, myostatin (Mstn), a strong inhibitor of skeletal muscle growth, is one of the most androgen‐responsive genes (6‐fold reduction in satARKO) through direct transcription activation by the AR. Consequently, muscle hypertrophy in response to androgens is augmented in Mstn‐knockout mice. Our finding that androgens induce Mstn signaling to restrain their own anabolic actions has implications for the treatment of muscle wasting disorders.—Dubois, V., Laurent, M. R., Sinnesael, M., Cielen, N., Helsen, C., Clinckemalie, L., Spans, L., Gayan‐Ramirez, G., Deldicque, L., Hespel, P., Carmeliet, G., Vanderschueren, D., and Claessens, F. A satellite cell‐specific knockout of the androgen receptor reveals myostatin as a direct androgen target in skeletal muscle. FASEB J. 28, 2979–2994 (2014). www.fasebj.org
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