In 1939, Carl Troll pointed out that “air photo interpretation is to a large extent landscape ecology”. From that time forward, remote sensing has been applied across different disciplines to ...comprehend the holistic and dynamic spatial layout of the visual Earth environment. However, its applicability in the domain of landscape character assessment, landscape design and planning is still questionable. The purpose of this paper was to synthesise some historical and current applications of remote sensing for the decomposition of the continual visual landscape from a bird’s eye perspective and to explore the potential for bridging geographic processes with visual perception and an appreciation of the landscape pattern. From the point of view of landscape ecology, the organisation of the landscape pattern namely, the size, shape (form), number, density and diversity, the complexity of landscape elements, and colours and textures of the land cover is crucial for the cognition of both the visual landscape experience and the geographic processes. There are numerous pieces of evidence from the literature that remote sensing data are widely implemented in the modelling of physiognomic landscape. The synthesis of the literature concludes with perspective directions of remote sensing applications, such as mapping the status of the ecosystem (landscape) services provision, the delineation of the boundaries of the protected areas based on the quality of the visual environment, and the assessment of the sustainability of the land use practices, regarding their impact on landscape aesthetics extent.
•Objective indicator of landscape coherence, based on human perception, is proposed.•Indicator combines advances in environmental psychology and landscape ecology.•Indicators of scenic values ...positively relate to landscape coherence extent.•Landscape coherence extent varies within landscape types.
Previous research in environmental psychology and landscape science has demonstrated that the complexity (based on diversity) of the visual landscape positively influences landscape values and public preferences through a relationship with landscape coherence. In this study, we suggest one possible GIS-based indicator of landscape coherence calculated for a digital landscape model (DLM). It measures the degree to which the visual landscape as a whole exceeds the set of its overlapping components (landforms and land cover) regarding diversity. We verified the performance of the index within the National Park Peneda-Gerês (Northern Portugal) as a study area with cumulative viewsheds based on Flickr and Panoramio geolocated content. The results demonstrate a scale-dependent, positive relationship between the proposed index of landscape coherence for the categorical models and the landscape values. The findings of this study can be applied to landscape planning and management, providing an easy-to-use GIS-based indicator of landscape character assessment.
Within peri-urban landscapes, this research investigated the complexity of the balance between urban development and green infrastructure preservation, with a specific focus on Harku municipality, ...Estonia. This study aimed to understand the interplay between cultural ecosystem services (CESs) and residents’ well-being. Aligned with the EU Nature Restoration Law, this research explored long-term dynamics in peri-urban areas’ CES conservation. The methodology included creating scenarios by combining new secondary data with the author’s prior studies, which covered landscape belts, CES values, and residents’ perceptions of satisfaction with the environment and recreation opportunities collected through a municipal survey. While residents expressed satisfaction in coastal and green spaces, a distinct decline was evident near villages with industrial and agricultural features, highlighting the landscape’s impact on well-being. This study identified case-study-specific threats related to rapid urbanisation and put forward constructive policy recommendations. The goal was to develop effective and sustainable strategies for preserving nature through ecosystem service-based frameworks, enhance community well-being, and account for landscape dynamics through scenario planning.
Armed conflicts and resulting displacement disrupt people’s sense of place, leading to an imbalance in the people–place relationship, exaggerated by rehabilitation efforts that overlook the sense of ...place among conflict- and displacement-impacted communities. A continuous landscape narrative that extends from pre- to post-conflict times contributes to recreating the essence of lost landscapes and therefore reconnecting their sense of place. Focusing on a Syrian city that hosted internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the aftermath of the Syrian conflict, this study aims to structure a virtual landscape and narrative depiction of conflict-impacted landscapes. This study proposes a storytelling approach for narrative construction and an AI-powered visualisation approach to revive the image of the elusive landscapes. This study utilised qualitative research methods through in-depth, semi-structured interviews for data collection and an online survey for exploring the perception of virtual landscape images generated with AI text-to-image models (DALL.E 2 and Bing Image Creator). This study indicates that narratives, supported by AI visualisation, are reliable for comprehending landscape transformation and changes in the sense of place. The two approaches can serve as rehabilitation initiatives in post-crisis settings to recall images of elusive landscapes to save them from being lost forever.
•We integrated remote sensing and social media data in a countrywide CES assessment.•We mapped the CES demand through the remoteness and density of CES flows.•Landscape colouristic diversity is the ...most important factor of CES supply.•We revealed discrepancies between population density and CES accessibility.•There is the need to focus on improving CES availability in highly populated areas.
Coupled usage of remote sensing and geotagged social media data responds to the growing interest in the spatially explicit operationalisation of cultural ecosystem services (CES). However, synergies of integrated usage of these data sources have not yet been unveiled to improve CES accessibility. This study aimed at applying the integrated remote sensing-social media framework to analyse the suitability of landscape pattern for CES use and explore CES availability in Estonia. We first spatially analysed the demand for selected CES—landscape watching, outdoor recreation, and wildlife watching—depicted in geotagged photographs. Second, we modelled CES supply as relative environmental suitability for the presence of CES related photographs, performing a proxy to the potential capacity of landscapes to provide opportunities for CES use. Third, we estimated the population density in spatial clusters of relatively low and high CES supply. We revealed the discrepancies between population density and accessibility of CES supply and CES providing areas within this integrative framework. As a result, we detected populated areas requiring in-depth CES assessment and prioritisation to restore, preserve, and, where necessary, enhance CES stocks. Our replicable and spatially explicit methodology improves rapid CES assessment across scales, given the nearly global character of remote sensing and social media data.
The concept of colour harmony, being rarely used in geography, landscape and environmental studies, has been significantly developed in psychology, art and computer science within the different ...approaches: colour wheel geometry and, more recently, numerical models applied to colour combinations. Using the main numerical principles of colour harmony, borrowed from the psychological literature, this study aims to investigate the ways of mapping the extent of the colour harmony of land cover, based on satellite Earth observations and explain the spatial distribution of colour harmony scores. The naturalness of environment, as well as heat and moisture balance, are confirmed to be the main drivers of the colour harmony of land cover. Crowd-sourced photographs, collected from Mapillary service, were used to link satellite and ground-based estimations of the colour harmony of land cover as “proof of concept”. They have a limited applicability for ground-based assessment of scenic colour harmony. Therefore, remote sensing data provide a significant support for nature conservation and sustainable management, being used for mapping of the colour harmony of land cover as an indicator of the visual quality of the perceived environment.
Context
Two approaches to study landscape change have been exploited: one that tries to study the developments that have happened in the past, and another that tries to foresee future.
Objectives
We ...analyse how this dual approach can help understanding landscape change, how people relate to it in general, what their expectations and preferences are. We also discuss the usefulness of path dependency theory, cultural sustainability, and cultural ecosystem services approaches in understanding the management of a historical cultural landscape.
Methods
First, we revisit a 1999 scenario study that outlined the possible trajectories of change prior Estonian accession to the European Union in 2004. Then, through series of studies we track the wider context of the landscape changes, analysing the results from the interviews and combining those with the visible results. We seek to answer whether or not the landscape changes that occurred followed any of the past scenarios, and if people’s preferences changed.
Results
The dynamics of realisation of different scenarios was not straightforward. However, people showed clear preference towards landscapes that carried signs of the continuation of rural life. What was not foreseen when designing the scenarios was the upsurge of local identity creating the links with the past.
Conclusions
In this Estonian traditional cultural landscape, stewardship, culture and cultural ecosystem services, or nature’s contribution to people as IPBES prefers to call this now, define what caring for the landscape involves.
This study combined landscape character assessment (LCA) and cultural ecosystem services (CES) frameworks to evaluate human well-being in the peri-urban area of Harku Municipality, Estonia. Using ...geospatial data combined with expert opinions, the study investigated the interplay between landscape character types and environmental/contact types through the LCA method. In total, 21 distinct landscape types comprising 47 separate areas were identified, with CES values determined for each. Restorative, social, and cognitive values were associated with each landscape character type. The findings demonstrated the higher restorative potential of blue and green elements (water bodies, forests) with low settlement density and minimal agriculture. High-density settlements with good road access demonstrated significant social values, while mixed forests and wetlands tended to be associated with higher cognitive values. Coastal zones with semi-dense settlements and mixed forests earned favourable ratings, whereas industrial/agricultural landscapes were rated lowest for all values. These findings offer valuable insights into the complex dynamics of urban–rural interactions, resilience, and the impact of urbanisation on CES. They may inform future landscape management strategies, urban planning decisions, and policy considerations. Additionally, this study highlights the need for further research to explore the long-term trends and potential changes in CES in evolving peri-urban environments.
This study examined the evaluation of cultural ecosystem services (CESs) and their impact on well-being in peri-urban areas, using a case study in Harku municipality, Estonia. CESs, encompassing ...intangible factors such as emotions and values, are crucial for well-being but challenging to assess. To address this, a pilot method was developed, involving a typology of natural environment types (NETs) and contact types (CTs), assessed by a panel of local experts. The results revealed that “spiritual, historic, and symbolic” gardens exhibited a strong positive connection to well-being. Blue and green spaces offering physical activities and aesthetics were also highly rated. Surprisingly, cemeteries scored higher than expected. Agreement among experts varied, with “parks + sporting” showing near-perfect consensus and weaker agreement found in “parks + food production”, “blue spaces + providing gathering places”, and “green landscape elements + education”, highlighting diverse expert perspectives in identifying suitable combinations of NETs and CTs. This study addresses research-to-practice gaps and methodological challenges in applying CESs within planning frameworks, providing valuable insights for managing and conserving services in peri-urban areas. By testing the proposed method, this research contributes to a better understanding of how CESs can be effectively integrated into planning processes, fostering sustainable well-being in peri-urbanised regions.
Social media continues to grow, permanently capturing our digital footprint in the form of texts, photographs, and videos, thereby reflecting our daily lives. Therefore, recent studies are ...increasingly recognising passively crowdsourced geotagged photographs retrieved from location-based social media as suitable data for quantitative mapping and assessment of cultural ecosystem service (CES) flow. In this study, we attempt to improve CES mapping from geotagged photographs by combining natural language processing, i.e., topic modelling and automated machine learning classification. Our study focuses on three main groups of CESs that are abundant in outdoor social media data: landscape watching, active outdoor recreation, and wildlife watching. Moreover, by means of a comparative viewshed analysis, we compare the geographic information system- and remote sensing-based landscape organisation metrics related to landscape coherence and colour harmony. We observed the spatial distribution of CESs in Estonia and confirmed that colour harmony indices are more strongly associated with landscape watching and outdoor recreation, while landscape coherence is more associated with wildlife watching. Both CES use and values of landscape organisation indices are land cover-specific. The suggested methodology can significantly improve the state-of-the-art with regard to CES mapping from geotagged photographs, and it is therefore particularly relevant for monitoring landscape sustainability.
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