The origins of the Indo-European language family are hotly disputed. Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of core vocabulary have produced conflicting results, with some supporting a farming expansion out ...of Anatolia ~9000 years before present (yr B.P.), while others support a spread with horse-based pastoralism out of the Pontic-Caspian Steppe ~6000 yr B.P. Here we present an extensive database of Indo-European core vocabulary that eliminates past inconsistencies in cognate coding. Ancestry-enabled phylogenetic analysis of this dataset indicates that few ancient languages are direct ancestors of modern clades and produces a root age of ~8120 yr B.P. for the family. Although this date is not consistent with the Steppe hypothesis, it does not rule out an initial homeland south of the Caucasus, with a subsequent branch northward onto the steppe and then across Europe. We reconcile this hybrid hypothesis with recently published ancient DNA evidence from the steppe and the northern Fertile Crescent.
One of the best established cases of lengthened grade is the nominative singular of many athematic paradigms, where lengthened grade (LG) in the last predesinential element is opposed to full grade ...(FG) in other forms and is normally reconstructed for PIE (distinctive LG). However, the exact original distribution and the explanation of the phenomenon are controversial. Different theories also make different predictions about the original distribution of distinctive LG, and these may be checked in order to assess these theories. In Indo-Iranian, Brugmann’s Law turned many cases of o grade into synchronic LG, thus removing potential cases of distinctive LG. The distribution of LG in Proto-Indo-Iranian (PIIr) strong stem forms is investigated, with the conclusion that distinctive LG in the nominative singular is only found in endingless nominatives. Elsewhere all forms of the strong stem show the same ablaut. Therefore, LG in the nominative singular can (but need not) largely be secondary, either leveling by strong stem forms with Indo-Iranian ā grade from o grade, or by analogy to such paradigms. The isolated form Vedic véṣ ‘bird’ < PIIr *(h)wáy-š is a counterexample to a general LG rule for monosyllabic stems. Indo-Iranian thus, while not excluding original distinctive LG in some s-marked nominatives, does not support it. However, evidence from Western IE languages appears to show distinctive LG in some nominatives of monosyllabic nouns. Possible explanations are discussed at the end.
