Over the past decade, the American armed services have witnessed a near-constant stream of so-called ethical lapses. Spanning rank, specialty, and service, these “lapses” have given rise to a flood ...of criticism by journalists and piercing calls for reform from politicians. In response, American military leaders have pointed to the paired concepts of profession and professionalism as the solution. In this article, we use classical conceptualizations of the military profession to resituate the problem of ethical lapses as instead one of the three fault lines of the contemporary American military profession, unfolding alongside crises in military expertise and identity. The three fault lines reveal at once the large scale of the challenges facing the American armed services and our very limited social scientific understanding of those problems. We end by emphasizing the need for future research to establish an updated empirical baseline for theories of the military profession in America.
Coming Home MacLean, Alair; Kleykamp, Meredith
Social problems (Berkeley, Calif.),
02/2014, Letnik:
61, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
In this article, we investigate public attitudes toward combat veterans returning from Iraq. Using data from a nationally representative survey that incorporates an experimental design, we assess the ...extent to which attitudes toward military veterans and private contractors differ, and whether public attitudes toward men vary based on combat and war zone experience. Drawing on social psychology and military sociology, we test hypotheses derived from a conceptual model of stigma and from research on the cultural injunction to “support the troops.” Consistent with the first portion of the stigma model, members of the public are not surprised to learn that men who went to a war zone behave according to stereotypes that imply that such men have problems with mental health, substance abuse, and violent behavior. Yet they do not discriminate against these men. Instead they favor men who went to Iraq compared to those who stayed in the United States. They also favor veterans compared to contractors. While combat veterans may be stereotyped, they are not stigmatized. They benefit from symbolic capital, which outweighs the effect of stereotypes on discrimination.
Objective. This article questions what factors are associated with joining the military after high school rather than attending college, joining the civilian labor force, or doing some other ...activity. Three areas of influence on military enlistment are highlighted: educational goals, the institutional presence of the military in communities, and race and socioeconomic status. Method. The analysis uses data from a recent cohort of high school graduates from the State of Texas in 2002, when the United States was at war, and employs multinomial logistic regression to model the correlates of post-high-school choice of activity in this cohort. Results. Results confirm the hypothesis that a higher military institutional presence increases the odds of enlisting in the military relative to enrolling in college, becoming employed, or doing some other activity after high school. Additionally, college aspirations are clearly associated with the decision to enroll in college versus enlist and also increase the odds of joining the military rather than the civilian labor market, or remaining idle. Unlike previous studies, few racial and ethnic differences are found. Conclusion. Voluntary military enlistment during wartime is associated college aspirations, lower socioeconomic status, and living in an area with a high military presence.
► I estimate employment, earnings and college enrollment among post 9/11 veterans by sex. ► The veteran employment penalty is greater among female veterans than male veterans, but lower among ...African–Americans. ► Post 9/11 veterans are more likely to be enrolled in college than comparable non-veterans.
This paper examines three outcomes characterizing different aspects of post 9/11 veterans’ economic reintegration to civilian life: unemployment, earnings and college enrollment, using Current Population Survey data from 2005 to 2011. Analyses include interactions of veteran status with sex, race/ethnicity and educational attainment to evaluate whether diverse veterans experience diverse consequences of service. In brief, I find that the basic unemployment differences between veterans and non-veterans often reported in the media understate the effect of military service on unemployment for men, since veterans have other characteristics that are associated with higher employment rates. Female veterans appear to suffer a steeper employment penalty than male veterans, but black veterans appear to suffer less of a penalty than white veterans. But on two other measures, earnings and college enrollment, veterans appear to be doing better than their civilian peers. Veterans with a high school education or less outearn their civilian peers, but veterans with at least some college education appear to lose some or all of the veteran earnings advantage compared to veterans with a high school degree, suggesting the greatest wage returns to military service accrue among the least educated. Veterans with at least a high school education are more likely to be enrolled in college than their civilian peers. Treating veterans as a monolithic block obscures differences in the consequences of military service across diverse groups.
Over the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, veterans have been more likely to enter into race/ethnic intermarriages than non-veterans. Theories of race/ ethnic intermarriage variously point to how ...minority race/ethnicity, race/ethnically diverse social settings, progressive racial attitudes, and high socioeconomic status increase individuals' likelihood of intermarrying. Veterans' unique racial and socioeconomic characteristics may contribute to their greater likelihood of intermarrying relative to non-veterans: larger percentages of veterans than non-veterans are members of racial and ethnic minority groups, while military service increases individual service members' long-term economic and educational prospects. At the same time, veterans share in common their exposure to the unique military environment, which may increase their likelihood of intermarriage by diversifying their social circles, and subjecting their attitudes and behavior to group norms that are more explicitly egalitarian than those of society at large. The present study considers these two possible explanations for veterans' greater likelihood of intermarriage. We use data on seven cohorts of men over six decades in the Current Population Survey, representing a total of 1,456,742 observations, to decompose the difference in likelihood of racial intermarriage between veterans and non-veterans among married men aged 18-65. We find that across cohorts and decades, veterans' greater likelihood of intermarrying is not fully explained by their race/ethnic and socioeconomic composition. We argue that veterans' greater likelihood of intermarrying may therefore be driven by their exposure to the military environment.
Why have African-American private-sector unionization rates surpassed those of white workers for decades, and how has private-sector union decline exacerbated black-white wage inequality? Using data ...from the Current Population Survey (1973-2007), the authors show that African-Americans join unions for protection against discriminatory treatment in nonunion sectors. A model-predicted wage series also shows that, among women, black-white weekly wage gaps would be between 13% and 30% lower if union representation remained at high levels. The effect of deunionization on racial wage inequality for men is less substantial, but without deunionization, weekly wages for black men would be an estimated $49 higher. The results recast organized labor as an institution vital for its economic inclusion of African-American men and women. This study points to the need to move beyond class-based analyses of union decline to an understanding of the gendered role unions once played in mitigating racial inequality.
Scholars have long examined how generations or, more technically, cohorts produce social change. According to theory, people’s lives are shaped by the years in which they were born because they ...experience, along with their peers, particular historical events at the same points in the life course. Despite the importance of history, however, many scholars have evaluated cohorts not defined by clear start and end dates, but rather by arbitrary cut points, such as five-year intervals. In contrast, this article uses defined changes in military service in the United States stemming from shifts between war and peace, and from draft to volunteer service to assess how cohorts have contributed to change in socioeconomic attainment. It uses the Current Population Survey from 1971 to 2017, which has not previously been used to evaluate how veteran status may have produced shifting outcomes across cohorts. It finds evidence that cohorts had different average income overall and between groups, with veterans earning more money than nonveterans who were eligible to serve during the draft era before the Vietnam War. These gaps are partially explained by racial and educational differences. The findings provide a model for analyses of changes in the relative status of other groups, as well as information about how the role of military service in social mobility changed historically.
ABSTRACT Introduction This article uses recent survey data from a study on gender integration at recruit training across the U.S. Armed Forces to examine service, gender, and training differences in ...recruit’s gender attitudes, beliefs, and cohesion metrics. In addition to providing a descriptive understanding of our recruit sample, this article examines factors germane to gender integration at recruit training such as gender attitudes, sexist beliefs, and unit cohesion. Materials and Methods This article uses data from a survey of U.S. Marine Corps (USMC), U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Coast Guard recruits as part of a USMC-commissioned study to develop alternate models and recommendations for increasing gender integration in USMC recruit training. At all sites but the USMC, recruits completed the survey 1 to 2 weeks before graduation. At the Marine Corps Recruit Depots, recruits participated in the survey at the beginning (week 2) and end (week 11) of their 13-week training cycle. A 19-question survey captured sociodemographic information, perspectives and experiences during recruit training, and gender attitudes and beliefs. Analyses were conducted on the sample with complete data on the measures reported, including those USMC recruits observed at both week 2 and week 11 (n = 629). Descriptive statistics (percentage) were calculated for all categorical outcome variables. Outcome variables (cohesion, gender, and sexism attitudes) were compared between groups using chi-squared tests or Fisher’s exact tests, as appropriate. Results Recruits differed significantly across services in perceptions of unit cohesion on 3 of the 4 indicators: Platoon members are cooperative, know they can depend on each other, and really respect each other (P < .05). These differences appear to be driven by female recruit difference across service. They reported significant differences in gender role attitudes across the services, with USMC recruits being most likely to endorse traditional gender roles compared to other service recruits. Male USMC recruits were significantly more likely than their female peers to agree that men should achieve outside the home and women should take care of the home and family (21.3% versus 6.3%, P < .05). The only statistical differences in attitudes about equality of treatment and opportunity among recruits were between male and female USMC recruits. All items capturing sexist attitudes elicited statistically significant differences between male USMC recruits and male recruits in other services (P < .05). There were significant differences in all sexism measures between male and female USMC recruits (P < .05). There is a significant decline in some sexist attitudes between weeks 2 and 11 of training among male USMC recruits (P < .05). Nearly one-half to three-fourths of male USMC recruits hold sexist attitudes, even near the end of recruit training. Conclusions The disparate gender and sexism attitudes of male USMC recruits compared with their peers in other services, and their fellow female USMC recruits suggest efforts to increase gender integration at entry-level training are needed, but also may be challenging since male USMC recruits report the highest levels of sexist attitudes among all recruits.
ABSTRACT Introduction Recruit training is the initial entry for enlisted personnel in the military. The Services execute gender-integrated recruit training differently. The U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) ...maintains same-gender platoons led by same-gender drill instructors in integrated companies; further integration occurs at select training events. The other Services train recruits in gender-integrated units with mixed-gender drill instructor teams. We examine recruits’ experiences and perceptions of gender integration at recruit training, their desired level of integration, and preferences for increasing gender integration, comparing by Service and gender. Materials and Methods Recruit perspectives and experiences were captured in a 19-question survey (n = 632) and 90-min focus groups (n = 260) near graduation from recruit training. Data were collected from June to November 2021. Because of the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic restrictions, the Navy and Air Force were not conducting gender-integrated recruit training during data collection. Outcome variables were compared cross-Service by gender and within Service by gender using chi-squared tests or Fisher’s exact tests, as appropriate; focus group data were analyzed using initial and secondary coding schemes. Three USMC training models, varied by level of integration, were also analyzed (Male-Only, Series Track, and Integrated Company). Results Significant gender differences across and within Service emerged in recruits’ experience being trained by an opposite-gender instructor. Male recruits had significant differences by Service (P < .001), and USMC female recruits reported being trained by male instructors more than their male peers by female instructors (Series Track P = .002; Integrated Company P < .001). In the focus groups, recruits described common differences with how men and women embodied being a drill instructor. Significant gender differences across (both male and female P < .001) and within Service were reported for closeness of training with opposite-gender peers (Air Force P = .028; U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) Integrated Company P = .010; Army P = .048), an expected finding given varied integration during data collection. Male and female recruits had significant differences by Service in their preference for integration at the lowest unit level (both male and female P < .001), with those who experienced integrated training showing higher levels of endorsement. In the focus groups, recruits articulated benefits and challenges of gender-integrated recruit training. Significant gender differences across Service emerged in preferences for more integration in specific training activities. Within Service, female USMC Integrated Company recruits wanted more integration in tactical/field, physical fitness, and classroom training than their male peers (P < .001 for all). In the focus groups, USMC recruits of both genders desired more integrated training events, particularly those involving combat and tactical skill development. Conclusions This study provided an opportunity to examine recruit perspectives on gender-integrated training. Services valuing opposite-gender instructor exposure in recruit training must ensure that male recruits are being taught and led by female instructors given disproportionate demographics. Recruits who experienced integrated training were more supportive of integration, indicating that this experience may increase their support for gender-integrated training units and environments. Today’s recruits understand that they are entering gender-integrated working environments, and our results indicate that they expect recruit training to mirror that reality.
To evaluate how the media frames veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, this study systematically assesses the discourse on Iraq and Afghanistan veterans in the New York Times and Washington ...Post from 2003 to 2011. Our analysis of a stratified sample of 151 articles featuring veterans from either the wars in Iraq or Afghanistan finds that the media frames veterans as damaged by their service but deserving of government benefits and social assistance. When the media frames veterans as actively engaging in society, their social engagement is often because of or despite their injuries or mistreatment. We find interplay between victimization and deservingness such that depictions of the cohort as physically and mentally damaged complement and justify arguments for a sustained high level of benefits to accommodate the needs of veterans. We thus argue that generous benefits for veterans partly stem from their depiction as having suffered from their service.
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