•Biodiversity underpins human health as an essential life-support system.•We present an integrated biodiversity-health framework.•Biodiversity influences human health via four domains of ...pathways.•The four pathway domains are: reducing harm, restoring capacities, building capacities, and causing harm.•Understanding biodiversity-health pathways can inform public health interventions.
Biodiversity is a cornerstone of human health and well-being. However, while evidence of the contributions of nature to human health is rapidly building, research into how biodiversity relates to human health remains limited in important respects. In particular, a better mechanistic understanding of the range of pathways through which biodiversity can influence human health is needed. These pathways relate to both psychological and social processes as well as biophysical processes. Building on evidence from across the natural, social and health sciences, we present a conceptual framework organizing the pathways linking biodiversity to human health. Four domains of pathways—both beneficial as well as harmful—link biodiversity with human health: (i) reducing harm (e.g. provision of medicines, decreasing exposure to air and noise pollution); (ii) restoring capacities (e.g. attention restoration, stress reduction); (iii) building capacities (e.g. promoting physical activity, transcendent experiences); and (iv) causing harm (e.g. dangerous wildlife, zoonotic diseases, allergens). We discuss how to test components of the biodiversity-health framework with available analytical approaches and existing datasets. In a world with accelerating declines in biodiversity, profound land-use change, and an increase in non-communicable and zoonotic diseases globally, greater understanding of these pathways can reinforce biodiversity conservation as a strategy for the promotion of health for both people and nature. We conclude by identifying research avenues and recommendations for policy and practice to foster biodiversity-focused public health actions.
Airborne pollen are the most important aeroallergens worldwide. Because of climate change, pollen seasonality and abundance have been altering significantly, raising the fundamental question: when ...and how much is the pollen exposure increasing? To answer this, we applied a multi-resolution study design, from bi-hourly to yearly scale, investigating the diversity, abundance and temporal occurrence of airborne pollen.
The whole spectrum of airborne pollen concentrations was registered during 2015–2017, using a 7-day recording Hirst-type volumetric trap. Monitoring took place at ground-level, where we mostly commute and reside, and at the ‘gold-standard’ rooftop-level (12 m above ground level), at resolutions: A) bi-hourly, B) daily. The biodiversity and the relative abundance of all taxa were assessed, and the first pollen season calendars, along with circadian calendars, for Augsburg, Germany, were developed.
More than 40 pollen types were identified, of which 13 were the most abundant (>0.5% relative abundance each, accounting for a total of 91.8%). Biodiversity did not present any striking differences between heights, with pollen from Urticaceae, Betula and Poaceae representing consistently more than half of the regional atmospheric biodiversity. At rooftop-level, pollen abundances often appeared to be higher, particularly for Betula, Picea and Quercus. The main pollen season extended from March to October, with the highest peak occurring April–May. At rooftop-level, the pollen seasons of most taxa were observed earlier and the overall seasons were longer. Within the day, higher pollen concentrations were observed either at midday to early afternoon (Urticaceae, Poaceae, Plantago and mostly taxa at ground-level) or night to early morning, frequently with multi-modal diurnal patterns (Betula, Fraxinus and mostly taxa at rooftop-level).
Our findings reveal that generalisation of abundance and temporal distribution patterns between ground-level and ‘gold-standard’ rooftop-level pollen measurements should be intensively reconsidered. While the pollen diversity and abundance may be well represented within this height range, the temporal occurrence is not, with pollen vertical variability being more important than originally anticipated. Hence, we need to reassess when and how much the relevant pollen exposure is increasing.
•The first pollen calendars were elaborated in Bavaria, Germany.•The whole pollen diversity was studied at two heights on bi-hourly, daily and yearly scale.•Biodiversity and abundance did not change dramatically between heights.•On a daily scale, pollen seasons occurred earlier or last longer at rooftop-level.•On a diurnal scale, pollen occurred on average 2 h earlier at rooftop level.
Pollen grains are among the main causes of respiratory allergies worldwide and hence they are routinely monitored in urban environments. However, their sources can be located farther, outside cities' ...borders. So, the fundamental question remains as to how frequent longer-range pollen transport incidents are and if they may actually comprise high-risk allergy cases. The aim was to study the pollen exposure on a high-altitude location where only scarce vegetation exists, by biomonitoring airborne pollen and symptoms of grass pollen allergic individuals, locally.
The research was carried out in 2016 in the alpine research station UFS, located at 2650 m height, on the Zugspitze Mountain in Bavaria, Germany. Airborne pollen was monitored by use of portable Hirst-type volumetric traps. As a case study, grass pollen-allergic human volunteers were registering their symptoms daily during the peak of the grass pollen season in 2016, during a 2-week stay on Zugspitze, 13–24 June. The possible origin of some pollen types was identified using back trajectory model HYSPLIT for 27 air mass backward trajectories up to 24 h.
We found that episodes of high aeroallergen concentrations may occur even at such a high-altitude location. More than 1000 pollen grains m−3 of air were measured on the UFS within only 4 days. It was confirmed that the locally detected bioaerosols originated from at least Switzerland, and up to northwest France, even eastern American Continent, because of frequent long-distance transport. Such far-transported pollen may explain the observed allergic symptoms in sensitized individuals at a remarkable rate of 87 % during the study period.
Long-distance transport of aeroallergens can cause allergic symptoms in sensitized individuals, as evidenced in a sparse-vegetation, low-exposure, ‘low-risk’ alpine environment. We strongly suggest that we need cross-border pollen monitoring to investigate long-distance pollen transport, as its occurrence seems both frequent and clinically relevant.
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•Pollen exposure and allergic symptoms were monitored on low-vegetation German Alps.•The possible origin of airborne pollen types was identified using back trajectory modelling.•We found >1000 pollen grains m−3 of air on the Alps within only 4 days.•Pollen originated most frequently from at least Switzerland, up to France and Canada.•Far-transported pollen may explain allergic symptoms at a rate of 87 %.
Airborne pollen monitoring has been an arduous task, making ecological applications and allergy management virtually disconnected from everyday practice. Over the last decade, intensive research has ...been conducted worldwide to automate this task and to obtain real-time measurements. The aim of this study was to evaluate such an automated biomonitoring system vs. the conventional 'gold-standard' Hirst-type technique, attempting to assess which may more accurately provide the genuine exposure to airborne pollen. Airborne pollen was monitored in Augsburg since 2015 with two different methods, a novel automatic Bio-Aerosol Analyser, and with the conventional 7-day recording Hirst-type volumetric trap, in two different sites. The reliability, performance, accuracy, and comparability of the BAA500 Pollen Monitor (PoMo) vs. the conventional device were investigated, by use of approximately 2.5 million particles sampled during the study period. The observations made by the automated PoMo showed an average accuracy of approximately 85%. However, it also exhibited reliability problems, with information gaps within the main pollen season of between 17 to 19 days. The PoMo automated algorithm had identification issues, mainly confusing the taxa of
,
and
. Hirst-type measurements consistently exhibited lower pollen abundances (median of annual pollen integral: 2080), however, seasonal traits were more comparable, with the PoMo pollen season starting slightly later (median: 3 days), peaking later (median: 5 days) but also ending later (median: 14 days). Daily pollen concentrations reported by Hirst-type traps vs. PoMo were significantly, but not closely, correlated (
= 0.53-0.55), even after manual classification. Automatic pollen monitoring has already shown signs of efficiency and accuracy, despite its young age; here it is suggested that automatic pollen monitoring systems may be more effective in capturing a larger proportion of the airborne pollen diversity. Even though reliability issues still exist, we expect that this new generation of automated bioaerosol monitoring will eventually change the aerobiological era, as known for almost 70 years now.
Background
Hundreds of plant species release their pollen into the air every year during early spring. During that period, pollen allergic as well as non‐allergic patients frequently present to ...doctors with severe respiratory tract infections. Our objective was therefore to assess whether pollen may interfere with antiviral immunity.
Methods
We combined data from real‐life human exposure cohorts, a mouse model and human cell culture to test our hypothesis.
Results
Pollen significantly diminished interferon‐λ and pro‐inflammatory chemokine responses of airway epithelia to rhinovirus and viral mimics and decreased nuclear translocation of interferon regulatory factors. In mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus, co‐exposure to pollen caused attenuated antiviral gene expression and increased pulmonary viral titers. In non‐allergic human volunteers, nasal symptoms were positively correlated with airborne birch pollen abundance, and nasal birch pollen challenge led to downregulation of type I and ‐III interferons in nasal mucosa. In a large patient cohort, numbers of rhinoviruspositive cases were correlated with airborne birch pollen concentrations.
Conclusion
The ability of pollen to suppress innate antiviral immunity, independent of allergy, suggests that high‐risk population groups should avoid extensive outdoor activities when pollen and respiratory virus seasons coincide.
Pollen significantly diminished the epithelial response to rhinovirus infectionand viral mimics, and decreased nuclear translocation of IRFs. In a murine RSV infection model, pollen increased pulmonary viral load in the absence of allergic sensitization. Evidence from different, independent human cohorts suggests that springtime pollen exposure compromises the respiratory antiviral response, not only in allergic, but also in non‐allergic individuals.
Abbreviations: HNEC, human nasal epithelial cells; HRV16, human rhinovirus 16; IRF, interferon regulatory factor; MDA5, melanoma differentiation‐associated protein 5; PBEC, primary bronchial epithelial cell; RIG‐I, retinoic acid inducible gene‐I; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; TLR3, toll‐like receptor 3
Pollen exposure weakens the immunity against certain seasonal respiratory viruses by diminishing the antiviral interferon response. Here we investigate whether the same applies to the pandemic severe ...acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is sensitive to antiviral interferons, if infection waves coincide with high airborne pollen concentrations. Our original hypothesis was that more airborne pollen would lead to increases in infection rates. To examine this, we performed a cross-sectional and longitudinal data analysis on SARS-CoV-2 infection, airborne pollen, and meteorological factors. Our dataset is the most comprehensive, largest possible worldwide from 130 stations, across 31 countries and five continents. To explicitly investigate the effects of social contact, we additionally considered population density of each study area, as well as lockdown effects, in all possible combinations: without any lockdown, with mixed lockdown-no lockdown regime, and under complete lockdown. We found that airborne pollen, sometimes in synergy with humidity and temperature, explained, on average, 44% of the infection rate variability. Infection rates increased after higher pollen concentrations most frequently during the four previous days. Without lockdown, an increase of pollen abundance by 100 pollen/m
resulted in a 4% average increase of infection rates. Lockdown halved infection rates under similar pollen concentrations. As there can be no preventive measures against airborne pollen exposure, we suggest wide dissemination of pollen-virus coexposure dire effect information to encourage high-risk individuals to wear particle filter masks during high springtime pollen concentrations.
Viruses are frequently a microbial biocontaminant of healthy plants. The occurrence of the infection can be also due to environmental stress, like urbanisation, air pollution and increased air ...temperature, especially under the ongoing climate change. The aim of the present study was to investigate the hypothesis that worsened air quality and fewer green areas may favour the higher frequency of common viral infections, particularly in a common tree in temperate and continental climates, Betula pendula ROTH.
We examined 18 trees, during the years 2015–2017, the same always for each year, in the region of Augsburg, Germany. By specific PCR, the frequency of two viruses, Cherry leaf roll virus (CLRV, genus Nepovirus, family Secoviridae), which is frequent in birch trees, and a novel virus tentatively named birch idaeovirus (BIV), which has been only recently described, were determined in pollen samples. The occurrence of the viruses was examined against the variables of urban index, air pollution (O3 and NO2), air temperature, and tree morphometrics (trunk perimeter, tree height, crown height and diameter). Generalized Non-linear models (binomial logit with backward stepwise removal of independent variables) were employed.
During the study period, both CLRV and BIV were distributed widely throughout the investigated birch individuals. CLRV seemed to be rather cosmopolitan and was present independent of any abiotic factor. BIV's occurrence was mostly determined by higher values of the urban index and of NO2. Urban birch trees, located next to high-traffic roads with higher NO2 levels, are more likely to be infected by BIV.
Increased environmental stress may lead to more plant viral infections. Here we suggest that this is particularly true for urban spaces, near high-traffic roads, where plants may be more stressed, and we recommend taking mitigation measures for controlling negative human interventions.
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•Cherry leaf roll virus and birch idaeovirus presence was studied in Betula pendula pollen.•High year-to-year variability was found in viral infections of birch trees.•Pollen of urban trees were more highly infected with CLRV and BIV.•The higher the urbanity index and the NO2 levels, the more frequent the birch idaeovirus infection.
Flowering and pollen seasons are sensitive to environmental variability and are considered climate change indicators. However, it has not been concluded to what extent flowering phenology is indeed ...reflected in airborne pollen season locally. The aim of this study was to investigate, for the commonly represented in temperate climates and with highly allergenic pollen Betula pendula Roth, the responsiveness of flowering to different environmental regimes and also to check for commensurate changes in the respective pollen seasons. The region of Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany, was initially screened for birch trees, which were geolocated at a radius of 25 km. Random trees across the city were then investigated during three full flowering years, 2015–2017. Flowering observations were made 3–7 times a week, from flower differentiation to flower desiccation, in a total of 43 plant individuals. Data were regressed against meteorological parameters and air pollutant levels in an attempt to identify the driving factors of flowering onset and offset. Flowering dates were compared with dates of the related airborne pollen seasons per taxon; airborne pollen monitoring took place daily using a Hirst-type volumetric sampler. The salient finding was that flowering occurred earlier during warmer years; it also started earlier at locations with higher urbanity, and peaked and ended earlier at sites with higher NO2 concentrations. Airborne pollen season of Betula spp. frequently did not coincide locally with the flowering period of Betula pendula: while flowering and pollen season were synchronized particularly in their onset, local flowering phenology alone could explain only 57.3% of the pollen season variability. This raises questions about the relationship between flowering times and airborne pollen seasons and on the rather underestimated role of the long-distance transport of pollen.
Pollen exposure induces local and systemic allergic immune responses in sensitized individuals, but nonsensitized individuals also are exposed to pollen. The kinetics of symptom expression under ...natural pollen exposure have never been systematically studied, especially in subjects without allergy.
We monitored the humoral immune response under natural pollen exposure to potentially uncover nasal biomarkers for in-season symptom severity and identify protective factors.
We compared humoral immune response kinetics in a panel study of subjects with seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR) and subjects without allergy and tested for cross-sectional and interseasonal differences in levels of serum and nasal, total, and Betula verrucosa 1–specific immunoglobulin isotypes; immunoglobulin free light chains; cytokines; and chemokines. Nonsupervised principal component analysis was performed for all nasal immune variables, and single immune variables were correlated with in-season symptom severity by Spearman test.
Symptoms followed airborne pollen concentrations in subjects with SAR, with a time lag between 0 and 13 days depending on the pollen type. Of the 7 subjects with nonallergy, 4 also exhibited in-season symptoms whereas 3 did not. Cumulative symptoms in those without allergy were lower than in those with SAR but followed the pollen exposure with similar kinetics. Nasal eotaxin-2, CCL22/MDC, and monocyte chemoattactant protein-1 (MCP-1) levels were higher in subjects with SAR, whereas IL-8 levels were higher in subjects without allergy. Principal component analysis and Spearman correlations identified nasal levels of IL-8, IL-33, and Betula verrucosa 1–specific IgG4 (sIgG4) and Betula verrucosa 1–specific IgE (sIgE) antibodies as predictive for seasonal symptom severity.
Nasal pollen–specific IgA and IgG isotypes are potentially protective within the humoral compartment. Nasal levels of IL-8, IL-33, sIgG4 and sIgE could be predictive biomarkers for pollen-specific symptom expression, irrespective of atopy.
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