The Observations and Modeling of the Green Ocean Amazon (GoAmazon2014/5) Experiment was carried out in the environs of Manaus, Brazil, in the central region of the Amazon basin for 2 years from ...1 January 2014 through 31 December 2015. The experiment focused on the complex interactions among vegetation, atmospheric chemistry, and aerosol production on the one hand and their connections to aerosols, clouds, and precipitation on the other. The objective was to understand and quantify these linked processes, first under natural conditions to obtain a baseline and second when altered by the effects of human activities. To this end, the pollution plume from the Manaus metropolis, superimposed on the background conditions of the central Amazon basin, served as a natural laboratory. The present paper, as the introduction to the special issue of GoAmazon2014/5, presents the context and motivation of the GoAmazon2014/5 Experiment. The nine research sites, including the characteristics and instrumentation of each site, are presented. The sites range from time point zero (T0) upwind of the pollution, to T1 in the midst of the pollution, to T2 just downwind of the pollution, to T3 furthest downwind of the pollution (70 km). In addition to the ground sites, a low-altitude G-159 Gulfstream I (G-1) observed the atmospheric boundary layer and low clouds, and a high-altitude Gulfstream G550 (HALO) operated in the free troposphere. During the 2-year experiment, two Intensive Operating Periods (IOP1 and IOP2) also took place that included additional specialized research instrumentation at the ground sites as well as flights of the two aircraft. GoAmazon2014/5 IOP1 was carried out from 1 February to 31 March 2014 in the wet season. GoAmazon2014/5 IOP2 was conducted from 15 August to 15 October 2014 in the dry season. The G-1 aircraft flew during both IOP1 and IOP2, and the HALO aircraft flew during IOP2. In the context of the Amazon basin, the two IOPs also correspond to the clean and biomass burning seasons, respectively. The Manaus plume is present year-round, and it is transported by prevailing northeasterly and easterly winds in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. This introduction also organizes information relevant to many papers in the special issue. Information is provided on the vehicle fleet, power plants, and industrial activities of Manaus. The mesoscale and synoptic meteorologies relevant to the two IOPs are presented. Regional and long-range transport of emissions during the two IOPs is discussed based on satellite observations across South America and Africa. Fire locations throughout the airshed are detailed. In conjunction with the context and motivation of GoAmazon2014/5 as presented in this introduction, research articles including thematic overview articles are anticipated in this special issue to describe the detailed results and findings of the GoAmazon2014/5 Experiment.
This study introduces a first glance at Amazonian aerosols in the N–Dg–σ phase space. Aerosol data, measured from May 2021 to April 2022 at the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO), were fitted by a ...multi-modal lognormal function and separated into three modes: the sub-50 nm, the Aitken (50–100 nm), and the accumulation modes. The fit results were then evaluated in the N–Dg–σ phase space, which represents a three-dimensional space based on the three lognormal fit parameters. These parameters represent, for a given mode i, the number concentration (Ni), the median geometric diameter (Dg,i), and the geometric standard deviation (σi). Each state of a particle number size distribution (PNSD) is represented by a single dot in this space, while a collection of dots shows the delimitation of all PNSD states under given conditions. The connections in ensembles of data points show trajectories caused by pseudo-forces, such as precipitation regimes and vertical movement. We showed that all three modes have a preferential arrangement in this space, reflecting their intrinsic behaviors in the atmosphere. These arrangements were interpreted as volumetric figures, elucidating the boundaries of each mode. Time trajectories in seasonal and diurnal cycles revealed that fits with the sub-20 nm mode are associated with rainfall events that happen in the morning and in the afternoon. But in the morning they grow rapidly into the Aitken mode, and in the afternoon they remain below 50 nm. Also, certain modes demonstrated well-defined curves in the space, e.g., the seasonal trajectory of the accumulation mode follows an ellipsoid, while the diurnal cycle of the sub-50 nm mode in the dry season follows a linear trajectory. As an effect of the precipitation on the PNSDs and vice versa, N and Dg were found to increase for the sub-50 nm mode and to decrease for the Aitken and accumulation modes after the precipitation peak. Afternoons with precipitation were preceded by mornings with larger particles of the accumulation mode, whose Dg was ∼ 10 nm larger than in days without precipitation. Nevertheless, this large Dg in the morning seems to influence subsequent rainfall only in the dry season, while in the wet season both N and Dg seem to have the same weight of influence. The observed patterns of the PNSDs in the N–Dg–σ phase space showed to be a promising tool for the characterization of atmospheric aerosols, to contribute to our understanding of the main processes in aerosol–cloud interactions, and to open new perspectives on aerosol parameterizations and model validation.
Aerosol-cloud interactions remain the largest uncertainty in climate projections. Ultrafine aerosol particles smaller than 50 nanometers (UAP
) can be abundant in the troposphere but are ...conventionally considered too small to affect cloud formation. Observational evidence and numerical simulations of deep convective clouds (DCCs) over the Amazon show that DCCs forming in a low-aerosol environment can develop very large vapor supersaturation because fast droplet coalescence reduces integrated droplet surface area and subsequent condensation. UAP
from pollution plumes that are ingested into such clouds can be activated to form additional cloud droplets on which excess supersaturation condenses and forms additional cloud water and latent heating, thus intensifying convective strength. This mechanism suggests a strong anthropogenic invigoration of DCCs in previously pristine regions of the world.
Observations of the boundary layer (BL) processes are analyzed statistically for dry seasons of 2 years and in detail, as case studies, for 4 shallow convective days (ShCu) and 4 shallow-to-deep ...convective days (ShDeep) using a suite of ground-based measurements from the Observation and Modeling of the Green Ocean Amazon (GoAmazon 2014/5) Experiment. The BL stages in ShDeep days, from the nighttime to the cloudy mixing layer stage, are then described in comparison with ShCu days. Atmospheric thermodynamics and dynamics, environmental profiles, and surface turbulent fluxes were employed to compare these two distinct situations for each stage of the BL evolution. Particular attention is given to the morning transition stage, in which the BL changes from stable to unstable conditions in the early morning hours. Results show that the decrease in time duration of the morning transition on ShDeep days is associated with high humidity and well-established vertical wind shear patterns. Higher humidity since nighttime not only contributes to lowering the cloud base during the rapid growth of the BL but also contributes to the balance between radiative cooling and turbulent mixing during nighttime, resulting in higher sensible heat flux in the early morning. The sensible heat flux promotes rapid growth of the well-mixed layer, thus favoring the deeper BL starting from around 08:00 LST (UTC-4 h). Under these conditions, the time duration of morning transition is used to promote convection, having an important effect on the convective BL strength and leading to the formation of shallow cumulus clouds and their subsequent evolution into deep convective clouds. Statistical analysis was used to validate the conceptual model obtained from the case studies. Despite the case-to-case variability, the statistical analyses of the processes in the BL show that the described processes are very representative of cloud evolution during the dry season.
•BjussuLAAO-II is a snake venom toxin with cytotoxic effects towards Caco-2 cells.•The toxin induces necrosis, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and DNA damage.•The toxin reduces cell viability by acting ...on multiple intracellular targets.•The toxin upregulates the inflammatory cytokine genes TNF and IL6 expression.•The toxin downregulates the apoptotic-related genes BAX, BCL2 and RELA expression.
Colorectal carcinoma is one of the most common cancers in adults. As chemotherapy, the first-choice treatment for colorectal carcinoma, is often infeasible due to acquired tumor resistance and several adverse effects, it is important to discover and explore new molecules with better therapeutic action. Snake venom toxins have shown promising results with high cytotoxicity against tumor cells, but their mechanisms of action remain unclear. Here we examined how BjussuLAAO-II, an L-amino acid oxidase isolated from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom, exerts cytotoxicity towards colorectal adenocarcinoma human cells (Caco-2) and human umbilical vein endothelial cell line (HUVEC). A 24-h treatment with BjussuLAAO-II at 0.25 − 5.00 μg/mL diminished cell viability by decreasing (i) mitochondrial activity, assessed by reduction of 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide and resazurin; (ii) the activity of acid phosphatases; and (iii) lysosomal function, assessed by neutral red uptake. BjussuLAAO-II also increased intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage, as assessed by fluorescence and the comet assay, respectively. BjussuLAAO-II altered the expression of cell proliferation-related genes, as determined by RT-qPCR: it elevated the expression of the inflammatory cytokine genes TNF and IL6, and lowered the expression of the apoptotic-related genes BAX, BCL2, and RELA. Therefore, BjussuLAAO-II induces Caco-2 cells death by acting on multiple intracellular targets, providing important data for further studies to assess whether these effects are seen in both tumor and normal cells, with the aim of selecting this drug for possible therapeutic purposes in the future.
Aerosol–cloud interactions contribute to the large uncertainties in current
estimates of climate forcing. We investigated the effect of aerosol particles
on cloud droplet formation by model ...calculations and aircraft measurements
over the Amazon and over the western tropical Atlantic during the
ACRIDICON–CHUVA campaign in September 2014. On the HALO (High
Altitude Long Range Research) research aircraft,
cloud droplet number concentrations (Nd) were measured near the
base of clean and polluted growing convective cumuli using a cloud combination
probe (CCP) and a cloud and aerosol spectrometer (CAS-DPOL). An adiabatic
parcel model was used to perform cloud droplet number closure studies for
flights in differently polluted air masses. Model input parameters included
aerosol size distributions measured with an ultra-high sensitive aerosol
spectrometer (UHSAS), in combination with a condensation particle counter
(CPC). Updraft velocities (w) were measured with a boom-mounted Rosemount
probe. Over the continent, the aerosol size distributions were dominated by
accumulation mode particles, and good agreement between measured and modeled
Nd values was obtained (deviations ≲ 10 %)
assuming an average hygroscopicity of κ∼0.1, which is consistent
with Amazonian biomass burning and secondary organic aerosol. Above the
ocean, fair agreement was obtained assuming an average hygroscopicity of
κ∼0.2 (deviations ≲ 16 %) and further
improvement was achieved assuming different hygroscopicities for Aitken and
accumulation mode particles (κAit=0.8, κacc=0.2; deviations ≲ 10 %), which may reflect
secondary marine sulfate particles. Our results indicate that Aitken mode
particles and their hygroscopicity can be important for droplet formation at
low pollution levels and high updraft velocities in tropical convective
clouds.
This study offers an alternative presentation regarding how diurnal precipitation is modulated by convective events that developed over the central Amazon during the preceding nighttime period. We ...use data collected during the Observations and Modelling of the Green Ocean Amazon (GoAmazon 2014/2015) field campaign that took place from 1 January 2014 to 30 November 2015 in the central Amazon. Local surface-based observations of cloud occurrence, soil temperature, surface fluxes, and planetary boundary layer characteristics are coupled with satellite data to identify the physical mechanisms that control the diurnal rainfall in central Amazon during the wet and dry seasons. This is accomplished through evaluation of the atmospheric properties during the nocturnal periods preceding raining and non-raining events. Comparisons between these non-raining and raining transitions are presented for the wet (January to April) and dry (June to September) seasons. The results suggest that wet-season diurnal precipitation is modulated by nighttime cloud coverage and local influences such as heating induced turbulence, whereas the dry-season rain events are controlled by large-scale circulations.
This study evaluates the effect of weather events on the aerosol particle size distribution (PSD) at the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO). This research combines in situ measurements of PSD and ...remote sensing data of lightning density, brightness temperature, cloud top height, cloud liquid water, and rain rate and vertical velocity. Measurements were obtained by scanning mobility particle sizers (SMPSs), the new generation of GOES satellites (GOES-16), the SIPAM S-band radar and the LAP 3000 radar wind profiler recently installed at the ATTO-Campina site. The combined data allow exploring changes in PSD due to different meteorological processes. The average diurnal cycle shows a higher abundance of ultrafine particles (N.sub.UFP) in the early morning, which is coupled with relatively lower concentrations in Aitken (N.sub.AIT) and accumulation (N.sub.ACC) mode particles. From the early morning to the middle of the afternoon, an inverse behavior is observed, where N.sub.UFP decreases and N.sub.AIT and N.sub.ACC increase, reflecting a typical particle growth process. Composite figures show an increase of N.sub.UFP before, during and after lightning was detected by the satellite above ATTO. These findings strongly indicate a close relationship between vertical transport and deep convective clouds. Lightning density is connected to a large increase in N.sub.UFP, beginning approximately 100 min before the maximum lightning density and reaching peak values around 200 min later. In addition, the removal of N.sub.ACC by convective transport was found. Both the increase in N.sub.UFP and the decrease in N.sub.ACC appear in parallel with the increasing intensity of lightning activity. The N.sub.UFP increases exponentially with the thunderstorm intensity. In contrast, N.sub.AIT and N.sub.ACC show a different behavior, decreasing from approximately 100 min before the maximum lightning activity and reaching a minimum at the time of maximum lightning activity. The effect of cloud top height, cloud liquid water and rain rate shows the same behavior, but with different patterns between seasons. The convective processes do not occur continually but are probably modulated by gravity waves in the range of 1 to 5 h, creating a complex mechanism of interaction with a succession of updrafts and downdrafts, clouds, and clear-sky situations.
Understanding the influence of biomass burning aerosol on clouds and precipitation in the Amazon is key to reducing uncertainties in simulations of climate change scenarios with regard to ...deforestation fires. Here, we associate rainfall characteristics obtained from an S-band radar in the Amazon with in situ measurements of biomass burning aerosol for the entire year of 2009. The most important results were obtained during the dry season (July-December). The results indicate that the influence of aerosol on precipitating systems is modulated by the atmospheric degree of instability. For less unstable atmospheres, the higher the aerosol concentration is, the lower the precipitation is over the region. In contrast, for more unstable cases, higher concentrations of black carbon are associated with greater precipitation, increased ice content, and larger rain cells; this finding suggests an association with long-lived systems. The results presented are statistically significant. However, due to limitations imposed by the available data set, important features, such as the contribution of each mechanism to the rainfall suppression, need further investigation. Regional climate model simulations with aircraft and radar measurements would help clarify these questions.
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