Kilonovae Metzger, Brian D.
Living reviews in relativity,
12/2020, Letnik:
23, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
The coalescence of double neutron star (NS–NS) and black hole (BH)–NS binaries are prime sources of gravitational waves (GW) for Advanced LIGO/Virgo and future ground-based detectors. Neutron-rich ...matter released from such events undergoes rapid neutron capture (
r
-process) nucleosynthesis as it decompresses into space, enriching our universe with rare heavy elements like gold and platinum. Radioactive decay of these unstable nuclei powers a rapidly evolving, approximately isotropic thermal transient known as a “kilonova”, which probes the physical conditions during the merger and its aftermath. Here I review the history and physics of kilonovae, leading to the current paradigm of day-timescale emission at optical wavelengths from lanthanide-free components of the ejecta, followed by week-long emission with a spectral peak in the near-infrared (NIR). These theoretical predictions, as compiled in the original version of this review, were largely confirmed by the transient optical/NIR counterpart discovered to the first NS–NS merger, GW170817, discovered by LIGO/Virgo. Using a simple light curve model to illustrate the essential physical processes and their application to GW170817, I then introduce important variations about the standard picture which may be observable in future mergers. These include
∼
hour-long UV precursor emission, powered by the decay of free neutrons in the outermost ejecta layers or shock-heating of the ejecta by a delayed ultra-relativistic outflow; and enhancement of the luminosity from a long-lived central engine, such as an accreting BH or millisecond magnetar. Joint GW and kilonova observations of GW170817 and future events provide a new avenue to constrain the astrophysical origin of the
r
-process elements and the equation of state of dense nuclear matter.
Kilonovae Metzger, Brian D.
Living reviews in relativity,
01/2017, Letnik:
20, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
The mergers of double neutron star (NS–NS) and black hole (BH)–NS binaries are promising gravitational wave (GW) sources for Advanced LIGO and future GW detectors. The neutron-rich ejecta from such ...merger events undergoes rapid neutron capture (
r
-process) nucleosynthesis, enriching our Galaxy with rare heavy elements like gold and platinum. The radioactive decay of these unstable nuclei also powers a rapidly evolving, supernova-like transient known as a “kilonova” (also known as “macronova”). Kilonovae are an approximately isotropic electromagnetic counterpart to the GW signal, which also provides a unique and direct probe of an important, if not dominant,
r
-process site. I review the history and physics of kilonovae, leading to the current paradigm of week-long emission with a spectral peak at near-infrared wavelengths. Using a simple light curve model to illustrate the basic physics, I introduce potentially important variations on this canonical picture, including:
∼
day-long optical (“blue”) emission from lanthanide-free components of the ejecta;
∼
hour-long precursor UV/blue emission, powered by the decay of free neutrons in the outermost ejecta layers; and enhanced emission due to energy input from a long-lived central engine, such as an accreting BH or millisecond magnetar. I assess the prospects of kilonova detection following future GW detections of NS–NS/BH–NS mergers in light of the recent follow-up campaign of the LIGO binary BH–BH mergers.
Abstract
Progenitor models for the “luminous” subclass of Fast Blue Optical Transients (LFBOTs; prototype: AT2018cow) are challenged to simultaneously explain all of their observed properties: fast ...optical rise times of days or less; peak luminosities ≳10
44
erg s
−1
; low yields ≲0.1
M
⊙
of
56
Ni; aspherical ejecta with a wide velocity range (≲3000 km s
−1
to ≳0.1–0.5
c
with increasing polar latitude); presence of hydrogen-depleted-but-not-free dense circumstellar material (CSM) on radial scales from ∼10
14
cm to ∼3 × 10
16
cm; embedded variable source of non-thermal X-ray/
γ
-rays, suggestive of a compact object. We show that all of these properties are consistent with the tidal disruption and hyper-accretion of a Wolf-Rayet (WR) star by a black hole or neutron star binary companion. In contrast with related previous models, the merger occurs with a long delay (≳100 yr) following the common envelope (CE) event responsible for birthing the binary, as a result of gradual angular momentum loss to a relic circumbinary disk. Disk-wind outflows from the merger-generated accretion flow generate the
56
Ni-poor aspherical ejecta with the requisite velocity range. The optical light curve is powered primarily by reprocessing X-rays from the inner accretion flow/jet, though CSM shock interaction also contributes. Primary CSM sources include WR mass loss from the earliest stages of the merger (≲10
14
cm) and the relic CE disk and its photoevaporation-driven wind (≳10
16
cm). Longer delayed mergers may instead give rise to supernovae Type Ibn/Icn (depending on the WR evolutionary state), connecting these transient classes with LFBOTs.
We combine electromagnetic (EM) and gravitational-wave (GW) information on the binary neutron star (NS) merger GW170817 in order to constrain the radii and maximum mass of NSs. GW170817 was followed ...by a range of EM counterparts, including a weak gamma-ray burst (GRB), kilonova (KN) emission from the radioactive decay of the merger ejecta, and X-ray/radio emission consistent with being the synchrotron afterglow of a more powerful off-axis jet. The type of compact remnant produced in the immediate merger aftermath, and its predicted EM signal, depend sensitively on the high-density NS equation of state (EOS). For a soft EOS that supports a low , the merger undergoes a prompt collapse accompanied by a small quantity of shock-heated or disk-wind ejecta, inconsistent with the large quantity of lanthanide-free ejecta inferred from the KN. On the other hand, if is sufficiently large, then the merger product is a rapidly rotating supramassive NS (SMNS), which must spin down before collapsing into a black hole. A fraction of the enormous rotational energy necessarily released by the SMNS during this process is transferred to the ejecta, either into the GRB jet (energy ) or the KN ejecta (energy ), also inconsistent with observations. By combining the total binary mass of GW170817 inferred from the GW signal with conservative upper limits on and from EM observations, we constrain the likelihood probability of a wide range of previously allowed EOSs. These two constraints delineate an allowed region of the parameter space, which, once marginalized over NS radius, places an upper limit of (90%), which is tighter or arguably less model-dependent than other current constraints.
ABSTRACT
Fast radio bursts (FRBs) can arise from synchrotron maser emission at ultrarelativistic magnetized shocks, such as produced by flare ejecta from young magnetars. We combine particle-in-cell ...simulation results for the maser emission with the dynamics of self-similar shock deceleration, as commonly applied to gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), to explore the implications for FRBs. The upstream environment is a mildly relativistic baryon-loaded shell released following a previous flare, motivated by the high electron–ion injection rate $\dot{M} \sim 10^{19}\!-\!10^{21}$ g s−1 needed to power the persistent radio nebula coincident with the repeating burster FRB 121102 and its high rotation measure. The radio fluence peaks once the optical depth ahead of the shock to induced Compton scattering τc ≲ 3. Given intervals between major ion ejection events ΔT ∼ 105 s similar to the occurrence rate of the most powerful bursts from FRB 121102, we demonstrate the production of ∼0.1–10 GHz FRBs with isotropic radiated energies ∼1037–1040 erg and durations ∼0.1–10 ms for flare energies E ∼ 1043–1045 erg. Deceleration of the blast wave, and increasing transparency of the upstream medium, generates temporal decay of the peak frequency, similar to the observed downward frequency drift seen in FRB 121102 and FRB 180814.J0422+73. The delay ΔT ≳ 105 s between major ion-injection events needed to clear sufficiently low densities around the engine for FRB emission could explain prolonged ‘dark periods’ and clustered burst arrival times. Thermal electrons heated at the shock generate a short-lived ≲1 ms (1 s) synchrotron transient at gamma-ray (X-ray) energies, analogous to a scaled-down GRB afterglow.
The fast radio burst FRB 121102 has repeated multiple times, enabling the identification of its host galaxy and of a spatially coincident, compact, steady ("persistent") radio synchrotron source. It ...was proposed that FRB 121102 is powered by a young flaring magnetar, embedded within a decades-old supernova remnant. Using a time-dependent one-zone model, we show that a single expanding magnetized electron-ion nebula (created by the same outbursts likely responsible for the fast radio bursts) can explain all of the basic properties of the persistent source (size, flux, self-absorption constraints) and the large but decreasing rotation measure (RM) of the bursts. The persistent emission is powered by relativistic thermal electrons heated at the termination shock of the magnetar wind, while the RM originates from non-relativistic electrons injected earlier in the nebula's evolution and cooled through expansion and radiative losses. The model contains few free parameters, which are tightly constrained by observations: the total energy injected into the nebula over its history, ∼1050−1051 erg, agrees with the magnetic energy of a millisecond magnetar; the baryon loading of the magnetar outflow (driven by intermittent flares) is close to the neutron star escape speed; the predicted source age ∼10-40 yr is consistent with other constraints on the nebula size. For an energy input rate following the onset of magnetar activity, we predict secular decay of the RM and persistent source flux, which approximately follow RM ∝ t−(6+ )/2 and , respectively.
Mergers of binary neutron stars usually result in the formation of a hypermassive neutron star (HMNS). Whether and when this remnant collapses to a black hole (BH) depends primarily on the equation ...of state and on angular momentum transport processes, both of which are uncertain. Here, we show that the lifetime of the merger remnant may be directly imprinted in the radioactively powered kilonova emission following the merger. We employ axisymmetric, time-dependent hydrodynamic simulations of remnant accretion discs orbiting an HMNS of variable lifetime, and characterize the effect of this delay to BH formation on the disc wind ejecta. When BH formation is relatively prompt (≲100 ms), outflows from the disc are sufficiently neutron rich to form heavy r-process elements, resulting in ∼week-long emission with a spectral peak in the near-infrared (NIR), similar to that produced by the dynamical ejecta. In contrast, delayed BH formation allows neutrinos from the HMNS to raise the electron fraction in the polar direction to values such that potentially Lanthanide-free
outflows are generated. The lower opacity would produce a brighter, bluer, and shorter-lived ∼ day-long emission (a ‘blue bump’) prior to the late NIR peak from the dynamical ejecta and equatorial wind. This new diagnostic of BH formation should be useful for events with a signal to noise lower than that required for direct detection of gravitational waveform signatures.
Subarcsecond localization of the repeating fast radio burst FRB 121102 revealed its coincidence with a dwarf host galaxy and a steady ("quiescent") nonthermal radio source. We show that the ...properties of the host galaxy are consistent with those of long-duration gamma-ray bursts (LGRB) and hydrogen-poor superluminous supernovae (SLSNe-I). Both LGRBs and SLSNe-I were previously hypothesized to be powered by the electromagnetic spin-down of newly formed, strongly magnetized neutron stars with millisecond birth rotation periods ("millisecond magnetars"). This motivates considering a scenario whereby the repeated bursts from FRB 121102 originate from a young magnetar remnant embedded within a young hydrogen-poor supernova (SN) remnant. Requirements on the gigahertz free-free optical depth through the expanding SN ejecta (accounting for photoionization by the rotationally powered magnetar nebula), energetic constraints on the bursts, and constraints on the size of the quiescent source all point to an age of less than a few decades. The quiescent radio source can be attributed to synchrotron emission from the shock interaction between the fast outer layer of the supernova ejecta with the surrounding wind of the progenitor star, or the radio source can from deeper within the magnetar wind nebula as outlined in Metzger et al. Alternatively, the radio emission could be an orphan afterglow from an initially off-axis LGRB jet, though this might require the source to be too young. The young age of the source can be tested by searching for a time derivative of the dispersion measure and the predicted fading of the quiescent radio source. We propose future tests of the SLSNe-I/LGRB/FRB connection, such as searches for FRBs from nearby SLSNe-I/LGRBs on timescales of decades after their explosions.
The electromagnetic (EM) signal of a binary neutron star (BNS) merger depends sensitively on the total binary mass, Mtot, relative to various threshold masses set by the neutron star (NS) equation of ...state (EOS), parameterized through the neutron star (NS) maximum mass, MTOV, and characteristic radius, R1.6. EM observations of a BNS merger detected through its gravitational-wave (GW) emission, which are of sufficient quality to ascertain the identity of the merger remnant, can therefore constrain the values of MTOV and R1.6, given the tight connection between Mtot and the well-measured chirp mass. We elucidate the present and future landscape of EOS constraints from BNS mergers, introducing the "Multi-Messenger Matrix," a mapping between GW and EM measurables that defines the ranges of event chirp masses that provide the most leverage on constraining the EOS. By simulating a population of BNS mergers drawn from the Galactic double NS mass distribution we show that ∼10 joint detections can constrain MTOV and R1.6 to several percent level where systematic uncertainties may become significant. Current EOS constraints imply that most mergers will produce supramassive or hypermassive remnants, a smaller minority (possibly zero) will undergo prompt collapse, while at most only a few percent of events will form indefinitely stable NSs. In support of the envisioned program, we advocate in favor of Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)/Virgo releasing chirp mass estimates as early as possible to the scientific community, enabling observational resources to be allocated in the most efficient way to maximize the scientific gain from multi-messenger discoveries.
Merging binaries consisting of two neutron stars (NSs) or an NS and a stellar-mass black hole typically form a massive accretion torus around the remnant black hole or long-lived NS. Outflows from ...these neutrino-cooled accretion disks represent an important site for r-process nucleosynthesis and the generation of kilonovae. We present the first three-dimensional, general-relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations including weak interactions and a realistic equation of state of such accretion disks over viscous timescales (380 ms). We witness the emergence of steady-state MHD turbulence, a magnetic dynamo with an ∼20 ms cycle, and the generation of a "hot" disk corona that launches powerful thermal outflows aided by the energy released as free nucleons recombine into -particles. We identify a self-regulation mechanism that keeps the midplane electron fraction low (Ye ∼ 0.1) over viscous timescales. This neutron-rich reservoir, in turn, feeds outflows that retain a sufficiently low value of Ye 0.2 to robustly synthesize third-peak r-process elements. The quasi-spherical outflows are projected to unbind 40% of the initial disk mass with typical asymptotic escape velocities of 0.1c and may thus represent the dominant mass ejection mechanism in NS-NS mergers. Including neutrino absorption, our findings agree with previous hydrodynamical -disk simulations that the entire range of r-process nuclei from the first to the third r-process peak can be synthesized in the outflows, in good agreement with observed solar system abundances. The asymptotic escape velocities and quantity of ejecta, when extrapolated to moderately higher disk masses, are consistent with those needed to explain the red kilonova emission following the NS merger GW170817.
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