Intradiol aromatic ring-cleaving dioxygenases use an active site, nonheme Fe ³⁺ to activate O ₂ and catecholic substrates for reaction. The inability of Fe ³⁺ to directly bind O ₂ presents a ...mechanistic conundrum. The reaction mechanism of protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase is investigated here using the alternative substrate 4-fluorocatechol. This substrate is found to slow the reaction at several steps throughout the mechanistic cycle, allowing the intermediates to be detected in solution studies. When the reaction was initiated in an enzyme crystal, it was found to halt at one of two intermediates depending on the pH of the surrounding solution. The X-ray crystal structure of the intermediate at pH 6.5 revealed the key alkylperoxo-Fe ³⁺ species, and the anhydride-Fe ³⁺ intermediate was found for a crystal reacted at pH 8.5. Intermediates of these types have not been structurally characterized for intradiol dioxygenases, and they validate four decades of spectroscopic, kinetic, and computational studies. In contrast to our similar in crystallo crystallographic studies of an Fe ²⁺-containing extradiol dioxygenase, no evidence for a superoxo or peroxo intermediate preceding the alkylperoxo was found. This observation and the lack of spectroscopic evidence for an Fe ²⁺ intermediate that could bind O ₂ are consistent with concerted formation of the alkylperoxo followed by Criegee rearrangement to yield the anhydride and ultimately ring-opened product. Structural comparison of the alkylperoxo intermediates from the intra- and extradiol dioxygenases provides a rationale for site specificity of ring cleavage.
Significance Vast quantities of aromatic compounds enter the environment due to the natural breakdown of lignin as well as industrial and agricultural pollution. Intradiol aromatic ring-cleaving dioxygenases play a pivotal role in the biodegradation of these aromatics. Despite exhaustive study, the mechanism of intradiol dioxygenases has remained elusive because the reaction cycle intermediates in which O ₂ is activated and inserted into the aromatic are too fleeting to be trapped and characterized. Here the intradiol dioxygenase reaction is carried out in a crystal, allowing the two reaction cycle intermediates that most clearly define the mechanism to be trapped and their structures solved.
Highlights • The PowerQuant® System was developed to quantify human DNA and assess sample quality. • A developmental validation following SWGDAM guidelines was completed. • Degraded DNA, inhibited ...samples, and mixtures of male/female DNA were evaluated. • Results demonstrate reliability, reproducibility and suitability for forensic use. • The PowerQuant® System distinguishes degraded samples from inhibited samples.
(4-Hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) catalyzes the second step in the pathway for the catabolism of tyrosine, the conversion of (4-hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate (HPP) to homogentisate (HG). This ...reaction involves decarboxylation, substituent migration, and aromatic oxygenation. HPPD is a member of the α-keto acid dependent oxygenases that require Fe(II) and an α-keto acid substrate to oxygenate an organic molecule. We have examined the binding of ligands to HPPD from Streptomyces avermitilis. Our data show that HPP binds to the apoenzyme and that the apo-HPPD·HPP complex does not bind Fe(II) to generate active holoenzyme. The binding of HPP, phenylpyruvate (PPA), and pyruvate to the holoenzyme produces a weak ligand charge-transfer band at ∼500 nm that is indicative of bidentate binding of the 1-carboxylate and 2-keto pyruvate oxygen atoms to the active site metal ion. For HPPD from this organism the 4-hydroxyl group of (4-hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate is a requirement for catalysis; no turnover is observed in the presence of phenylpyruvate. The rate constant for the dissociation of Fe(II) from the holoenzyme is 0.0006 s-1 and indicates that this phenomenon is not significantly relevant in steady-state turnover. The addition of HPP and molecular oxygen to the holoenzyme is formally random. The basis of the ordered bi bi steady-state kinetic mechanism previously observed by Rundgren (Rundgren, M. (1977) J. Biol. Chem. 252, 5094−9) is the 3600-fold increase in oxygen reactivity when holo-HPPD is in complex with HPP. This complex reacts with molecular oxygen with a second-order rate constant of 1.4 × 105 M-1 s-1 inducing the formation of an intermediate that decays at the catalytically relevant rate of 7.8 s-1.
(4-Hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) incorporates both atoms of molecular oxygen into 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate (HPP) to form homogentisate (HG). This reaction has direct relevance in both ...medicine and agriculture. In humans, the specific inhibition of HPPD alleviates the symptoms of diseases that arise from tyrosine catabolism defects. However, in plants, the inhibition of HPPD bleaches, stunts, and ultimately kills the organism. The reason for this is that in mammalian metabolism the product HG does not feed into other pathways, whereas in plants it is the precursor for the redox active portion of tocopherols and plastoquinones. There are a number of commercially available herbicides that directly target the inhibition of the HPPD reaction. Plant HPPD however is largely uncharacterized in terms of its catalysis and inhibition reactions. In this study, we examine the catalysis and inhibition of HPPD from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtHPPD). We have expressed AtHPPD and purified the enzyme to high specific activity. This form of HPPD accumulates two transient species in single turnover reactions with the native substrate HPP. These transients appear to be equivalent to intermediates I and III observed in the enzyme from Streptomyces (Johnson-Winters et al. (2005), Biochemistry, 44, 7189−7199). The first intermediate is a relatively strongly absorbing species with maxima at 380 and 490 nm. This species decays to a second intermediate that is fluorescent and has been assigned as the complex of the enzyme with the product, HG. The decay of this intermediate is rate-determining in multiple turnover reactions. The reaction of the enzyme with the analogue of the substrate, phenylpyruvate (PPA), is noncatalytic. A single turnover reaction is observed with this ligand that renders the enzyme oxidized to the ferric form, consumes a stoichiometric amount of dioxygen, and yields 66% phenylacetate as a product. Additional absorbance features at 365 and 670 nm accumulate during inactivation and give the inactivated enzyme a green color but has the same molecular mass as the active enzyme as determined by mass spectrometry.
(4-Hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) catalyzes the conversion of (4-hydroxyphenyl)pyruvate (HPP) to homogentisate (HG). This reaction involves decarboxylation, substituent migration, and ...aromatic oxygenation in a single catalytic cycle. HPPD is a unique member of the α-keto acid dependent oxygenases that require Fe(II) and an α-keto acid substrate to oxygenate or oxidize an organic molecule. We have examined the reaction coordinate of HPPD from Streptomyces avermitilis using rapid mixing pre-steady-state methods in conjunction with steady-state kinetic analyses. Acid quench reactions and product analysis of homogentisate indicate that HPPD as isolated is fully active and that experiments limited in dioxygen concentration with respect to that of the enzyme do involve a single turnover. These experiments indicate that during the course of one turnover the concentration of homogentisate is stoichiometric with enzyme concentration by ∼200 ms, well before the completion of the catalytic cycle. Subsequent single turnover reactions were monitored spectrophotometrically under pseudo-first-order and matched concentration reactant conditions. Three spectrophotometrically distinct intermediates are observed to accumulate. The first of these is a relatively strongly absorbing species with maxima at 380 and 480 nm that forms with a rate constant (k 1) of 7.4 × 104 M-1 s-1 and then decays to a second intermediate with a rate constant (k 2) of 74 s-1. The rate constant for the decay of the second intermediate (k 3) is 13 s-1 and is concomitant with the formation of the product, homogentisate, based on rapid quench and pre-steady-state fluorescence measurements. The rate constant for this process decreases to 7.6 s-1 when deuterons are substituted for protons in the aromatic ring of the substrate. The release of product from the enzyme is rate limiting and occurs at 1.6 s-1. This final event exhibits a kinetic isotope effect of 2 with deuterium oxide as the solvent, consistent with a solvent isotope effect on V max of 2.6 observed in steady-state experiments.
•The PowerQuant¨r) System was developed to quantify human DNA and assess sample quality.•A developmental validation following SWGDAM guidelines was completed.•Degraded DNA, inhibited samples, and ...mixtures of male/female DNA were evaluated.•Results demonstrate reliability, reproducibility and suitability for forensic use.•The PowerQuant¨r) System distinguishes degraded samples from inhibited samples.
Quantification of the total amount of human DNA isolated from a forensic evidence item is crucial for DNA normalization prior to short tandem repeat (STR) DNA analysis and a federal quality assurance standard requirement. Previous commercial quantification methods determine the total human DNA and total human male DNA concentrations, but provide limited information about the condition of the DNA sample. The PowerQuant¨r) System includes targets for quantification of total human and total human male DNA as well as targets for evaluating whether the human DNA is degraded and/or PCR inhibitors are present in the sample. A developmental validation of the PowerQuant¨r) System was completed, following SWGDAM Validation Guidelines, to evaluate the assay tm)s specificity, sensitivity, precision and accuracy, as well as the ability to detect degraded DNA or PCR inhibitors. In addition to the total human DNA and total human male DNA concentrations in a sample, data from the degradation target and internal PCR control (IPC) provide a forensic DNA analyst meaningful information about the quality of the isolated human DNA and the presence of PCR inhibitors in the sample that can be used to determine the most effective workflow and assist downstream interpretation.
PDF
