We examine investor stereotypes and implicit bias in crowdfunding decisions. Prior research in formal venture capital settings demonstrates that investors tend to have a funding bias against women. ...However, in crowdfunding – wherein a ‘crowd’ of amateur investors make relatively small investments in new companies – our empirical observations reveal a funding advantage for women. We explain the causal mechanism underlying this counterintuitive finding by drawing upon stereotype content theory and testing a dual path moderated-mediation model. Based on archival data and a follow-up experiment, our findings suggest common gender biases held by amateur investors function to increase female stereotype perceptions in the form of trustworthiness judgments, which subsequently increases investors' willingness to invest in early-stage women-led ventures. We discuss our results with specific attention to how our findings extend the entrepreneurship funding literature as well as the gender dynamics literature in entrepreneurship and organization research more broadly.
•Female entrepreneurs are more likely to be funded than men in a crowdfunding context.•Female entrepreneurs are stereotypically seen as higher in trustworthiness.•Trustworthiness judgments foster a funders' backing of a female entrepreneur.•The funder's implicit gender bias strengthens these effects.•No results are found for stereotypically derived competence judgments.
► We review previous definitions of driver distraction and driver inattention. ► We define and characterise driver distraction and driver inattention. ► We distinguish between different categories of ...internalized thought. ► We propose a new taxonomy of driver inattention.
There is accumulating evidence that driver distraction and driver inattention are leading causes of vehicle crashes and incidents. However, as applied psychological constructs, they have been inconsistently defined and the relationship between them remains unclear. In this paper, driver distraction and driver inattention are defined and a taxonomy is presented in which driver distraction is distinguished from other forms of driver inattention. The taxonomy and the definitions provided are intended (a) to provide a common framework for coding different forms of driver inattention as contributing factors in crashes and incidents, so that comparable estimates of their role as contributing factors can be made across different studies, and (b) to make it possible to more accurately interpret and compare, across studies, the research findings for a given form of driver inattention.
Acceptance of new technology and systems by drivers is an important area of concern to governments, automotive manufacturers and equipment suppliers, especially technology that has significant ...potential to enhance safety. To be acceptable, new technology must be useful and satisfying to use. If not, drivers will not want to have it, in which case it will never achieve the intended safety benefit. Even if they have the technology, drivers may not use it if it is deemed unacceptable, or may not use it in the manner intended by the designer. At worst, they may seek to disable it.
An understanding of risks to biodiversity is needed for planning action to slow current rates of decline and secure ecosystem services for future human use. Although the IUCN Red List criteria ...provide an effective assessment protocol for species, a standard global assessment of risks to higher levels of biodiversity is currently limited. In 2008, IUCN initiated development of risk assessment criteria to support a global Red List of ecosystems. We present a new conceptual model for ecosystem risk assessment founded on a synthesis of relevant ecological theories. To support the model, we review key elements of ecosystem definition and introduce the concept of ecosystem collapse, an analogue of species extinction. The model identifies four distributional and functional symptoms of ecosystem risk as a basis for assessment criteria: A) rates of decline in ecosystem distribution; B) restricted distributions with continuing declines or threats; C) rates of environmental (abiotic) degradation; and D) rates of disruption to biotic processes. A fifth criterion, E) quantitative estimates of the risk of ecosystem collapse, enables integrated assessment of multiple processes and provides a conceptual anchor for the other criteria. We present the theoretical rationale for the construction and interpretation of each criterion. The assessment protocol and threat categories mirror those of the IUCN Red List of species. A trial of the protocol on terrestrial, subterranean, freshwater and marine ecosystems from around the world shows that its concepts are workable and its outcomes are robust, that required data are available, and that results are consistent with assessments carried out by local experts and authorities. The new protocol provides a consistent, practical and theoretically grounded framework for establishing a systematic Red List of the world's ecosystems. This will complement the Red List of species and strengthen global capacity to report on and monitor the status of biodiversity.
•A large-scale survey gauging public opinion about automated vehicles in Australia.•Australian public opinion about automated vehicles (AVs) appears to be diverse.•Although largely accepting of AVs, ...Australians still have significant concerns.•Results increase our understanding of the profile of individuals most open to AVs.•Our findings may have important practical implications, particularly for government.
Public acceptability, and ultimately acceptance, of automated vehicles (AVs) is critical in order to ensure that drivers utilise them and thus realise their predicted safety and other benefits. The aim of this study was to gauge public acceptability and opinions of AVs within an Australian context, for which there is currently a scarcity of empirical research. The study employed a national sample of 5089 respondents who responded to a large online survey (including 45 items specifically targeting aspects of AV acceptability). Survey items gauged demographic and other sample characteristics, and probed responses to questions on key issues including (a) the perceived benefits of AVs, (b) sources, and degree, of concerns regarding AV-related issues, and (c) willingness to pay for AV technology. Overall, it was found that, even though Australian respondents tended to agree with many of the potential benefits of AVs probed in the survey, they have considerable concerns regarding many AV-related issues. Furthermore, a majority of Australians are currently not willing to pay any more for a fully autonomous vehicle than for a manually operated vehicle. Results also showed that a number of sample demographic and characteristic variables (e.g., gender, self-classification as an early vs. late adopter of technology) have unique associations with aspects of AV acceptability. Important theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Global biodiversity indices are used to measure environmental change and progress toward conservation goals, yet few indices have been evaluated comprehensively for their capacity to detect trends of ...interest, such as declines in threatened species or ecosystem function. Using a structured approach based on decision science, we qualitatively evaluated 9 indices commonly used to track biodiversity at global and regional scales against 5 criteria relating to objectives, design, behavior, incorporation of uncertainty, and constraints (e.g., costs and data availability). Evaluation was based on reference literature for indices available at the time of assessment. We identified 4 key gaps in indices assessed: pathways to achieving goals (means objectives) were not always clear or relevant to desired outcomes (fundamental objectives); index testing and understanding of expected behavior was often lacking; uncertainty was seldom acknowledged or accounted for; and costs of implementation were seldom considered. These gaps may render indices inadequate in certain decision‐making contexts and are problematic for indices linked with biodiversity targets and sustainability goals. Ensuring that index objectives are clear and their design is underpinned by a model of relevant processes are crucial in addressing the gaps identified by our assessment. Uptake and productive use of indices will be improved if index performance is tested rigorously and assumptions and uncertainties are clearly communicated to end users. This will increase index accuracy and value in tracking biodiversity change and supporting national and global policy decisions, such as the post‐2020 global biodiversity framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Uso de las Ciencias de la Decisión para Evaluar los Índices Globales de Biodiversidad
Resumen
Los índices globales de biodiversidad se usan para medir el cambio ambiental y el avance hacia los objetivos de conservación, aunque pocos han sido evaluados completamente en cuanto a su capacidad para detectar las tendencias de interés como las declinaciones de especies amenazadas o la función del ecosistema. Evaluamos cualitativamente nueve índices de uso común para dar seguimiento a la biodiversidad a escala global y regional contra cinco criterios relacionados con los objetivos, diseño, comportamiento, incorporación de la incertidumbre y restricciones (p. ej.: costos y disponibilidad de datos) mediante una estrategia estructurada basada en las ciencias de la decisión. La evaluación se basó en la literatura de referencia para los índices disponibles al momento del análisis. Identificamos cuatro vacíos importantes en los índices estudiados: las vías para lograr los objetivos (objetivos medios) no fueron siempre claras o relevantes para los resultados deseados (objetivos fundamentales); el análisis del índice y el entendimiento del comportamiento esperado casi siempre fueron escasos; pocas veces se consideró o explicó la incertidumbre; y casi nunca se consideraron los costos de la implementación. Estos vacíos pueden hacer que los índices sean inadecuados en ciertos contextos de toma de decisiones y son problemáticos para los índices vinculados a los objetivos de biodiversidad y las metas de sustentabilidad. Es de suma importancia asegurarse que los objetivos del índice sean claros y que su diseño esté respaldado por un modelo de procesos relevantes para tratar con los vacíos identificados en nuestro estudio. La aceptación y el uso productivo de los índices mejorarán si el desempeño del índice es evaluado rigurosamente y las suposiciones e incertidumbres se les comunican claramente a los usuarios finales. Lo anterior aumentará la precisión y valor del índice en el seguimiento de los cambios de la biodiversidad y en el apoyo a las decisiones políticas nacionales y mundiales, como el marco de trabajo para la biodiversidad post‐2020 establecido por la Convención sobre la Diversidad Biológica.
摘要
全球生物多样性指数被用于衡量环境变化和保护目标的进展情况, 然而, 很少有研究全面评估这些指数监测相应变化 (如受威胁物种的数量下降或生态系统功能丧失) 的能力。本研究利用基于决策科学的结构化方法, 根据目标、设计、行为、不确定性和约束因素 (如成本和数据可用性) 这五个标准, 定性地评估了九个常用于追踪全球和区域生物多样性的指数。我们以评估阶段已有的参考文献为基础, 在被评估的指数中找出了四个关键的差距:实现目标的途径 (方法目标) 有时不够清晰或与预期结果 (基本目标) 不相关;缺乏检验和理解预期行为的指数;很少考虑或解释不确定性;很少考虑实施成本。这些不足可能导致某些决策背景下指数使用不恰当, 或是与生物多样性目标和可持续性目标相关的指数存在问题。要解决我们在评估中发现的差距, 应确保指数的目标清晰, 且设计基于相关过程的模型。如果能严格检验指数的表现情况, 并向最终使用者清楚地传达其假设和不确定性, 则能改进对指数的理解和有效使用。这样将提高在追踪生物多样性变化、支持国家和全球政策决策 (如《生物多样性公约》 2020 年后全球生物多样性框架) 中指数的准确性和价值。翻译: 胡怡思; 审校: 聂永刚
Article impact statement: Evaluating biodiversity indices against criteria testing fitness for use means more effective and robust application in decision making.
This paper presents the findings of a simulator study that examined the effects of distraction upon driving performance for drivers in three age groups. There were two in-vehicle distracter tasks: ...operating the vehicle entertainment system and conducting a simulated hands-free mobile phone conversation. The effect of visual clutter was examined by requiring participants to drive in simple and complex road environments.
Overall measures of driving performance were collected, together with responses to roadway hazards and subjective measures of driver perceived workload. The two in-vehicle distraction tasks degraded overall driving performance, degraded responses to hazards and increased subjective workload. The performance decrements that occurred as a result of in-vehicle distraction were observed in both the simple and complex highway environments and for drivers in different age groups. One key difference was that older drivers traveled at lower mean speeds in the complex highway environment compared with younger drivers.
The conclusions of the research are that both in-vehicle tasks impaired several aspects of driving performance, with the entertainment system distracter having the greatest negative impact on performance, and that these findings were relatively stable across different driver age groups and different environmental complexities.
Alzheimer's disease constitutes a rising threat to public health. Despite extensive research in cellular and animal models, identifying the pathogenic agent present in the human brain and showing ...that it confers key features of Alzheimer's disease has not been achieved. We extracted soluble amyloid-β protein (Aβ) oligomers directly from the cerebral cortex of subjects with Alzheimer's disease. The oligomers potently inhibited long-term potentiation (LTP), enhanced long-term depression (LTD) and reduced dendritic spine density in normal rodent hippocampus. Soluble Aβ from Alzheimer's disease brain also disrupted the memory of a learned behavior in normal rats. These various effects were specifically attributable to Aβ dimers. Mechanistically, metabotropic glutamate receptors were required for the LTD enhancement, and N-methyl D-aspartate receptors were required for the spine loss. Co-administering antibodies to the Aβ N-terminus prevented the LTP and LTD deficits, whereas antibodies to the midregion or C-terminus were less effective. Insoluble amyloid plaque cores from Alzheimer's disease cortex did not impair LTP unless they were first solubilized to release Aβ dimers, suggesting that plaque cores are largely inactive but sequester Aβ dimers that are synaptotoxic. We conclude that soluble Aβ oligomers extracted from Alzheimer's disease brains potently impair synapse structure and function and that dimers are the smallest synaptotoxic species.
Despite the increasing number of automated systems that have been introduced in vehicles over the past decade, highly automated vehicles are not yet capable of driving reliably and safely in all ...traffic scenarios and conditions. Until they are, humans will need to remain in the loop – to take back vehicle control when the driving capabilities of the automated system(s) are limited or systems fail. This automation-to-manual transition may be problematic if the driver is inattentive or distracted by competing activities. If so, this may compromise the driver's ability to take back control in a safe and timely manner. The aims of this study are to: (a) review what is known about driver inattention and distraction during periods of highly automated driving, (b) to outline countermeasures that have or may have potential to prevent and mitigate the effects of inattention and distraction during automated driving and (c) to highlight future research directions that may further inform the understanding and management of distraction and inattention as vehicles become increasingly automated. The paper concludes by contemplating whether a fully self-driving vehicle may itself be distracted or inattentive to activities critical for safe driving.
We review extant experimental work in strategic management and argue that experiments constitute an underused methodology that has significant potential. We examine and categorize 179 experiments ...from 119 published articles over a 20-year period, delineating the contributions of these experiments to the strategic management literature. In doing so, we identify topic areas in which experiments have been effectively deployed as well as several literature streams that have a limited amount of prior experimental research. We discuss specific challenges of using experiments in strategy research, especially given its strong focus on the firm level of analysis. We also emphasize approaches for how experiments can be instrumental in extending management theories and accelerating behavioral microfoundations of strategy research. In light of past contributions and gaps, we discuss specific opportunities and means of designing innovative experiments, propose novel potential research questions, and provide a best practices methodological guide that scholars can use when considering experimental designs. Overall, our work documents experimental research and provides a methodological practicum, thereby offering a platform for future experiment-based research in strategic management.
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