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•Ostrich-eggshell waste as the raw material to synthesize calcium oxide heterogeneous base catalyst.•Biofuel, biodiesel is produced from waste cooking oil via two steps ...transesterification reaction.•Biodiesel yield was 96% and 94% for calcined ostrich- and calcined chicken-eggshells under same optima reaction condition.•Biodiesel produced from calcined ostrich-eggshell and calcined chicken-eggshell satisfied ASTM D6751.
The primary goal of this paper is to investigate the catalyst characterization and biodiesel yield of a biodiesel converted from a used cooking oil source via heterogeneous catalysts derived from very rare type of eggshell: ostrich-eggshell (ostrich-eggshell derived CaO). It also aims to compare the performance of CaO catalyst derived from both waste ostrich-eggshell and the conventional chicken-eggshell, and to find the optimum conditions for biodiesel production. The prepared catalysts were then characterized by using XRD, FT-IR, BET, SEM, TGA and CO2-TPD. The parametric effects on the biodiesel production, such as catalyst concentration, molar ratio of methanol to oil, reaction temperature, reaction time, speed and reusability of the catalyst were investigated. The experimental result showed that 1.5wt.% catalyst, 12:1M ratio of methanol to oil, 65°C reaction temperature, 2h reaction time with speed of 250rpm gave the best results. It was found that the ostrich-eggshell derived CaO catalyst shows higher surface area, higher basicity and smaller particle size. The maximum biodiesel yield is 96% and 94% for calcined ostrich-eggshell and chicken-eggshell, respectively. The CaO catalyst derived from waste calcined ostrich and chicken-eggshell maintained a good catalytic activity even after being repeatedly used for 5 cycles with yield around 70%, which implies potential saving and affordable biodiesel production possibilities.
This paper evaluates the feasibility of using fusion waste chicken and fish bones as the reusable and low cost solid catalyst for synthesis of biodiesel from used cooking oil via two-step ...transesterification. A catalyst characterization of the prepared fusion waste chicken and fish bones catalyst was made in order to study their catalytic performance through various techniques such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Particle Size Analysis (PSA), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Fourier Transform Infrared spectra (FTIR), Carbon Dioxide-Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD-CO2) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). The used cooking oil transesterification was optimized using a response surface methodology (RSM) based on five level three variables central composite design (CCD). The RSM results revealed that the optimal operational condition for the transesterification has defined as: catalyst loading, 1.98%w/v, reaction temperature, 65 °C and time, 1.54 h, whereas the alcohol/oil molar ratio, 10:1 is a fixed variable in this study. The actual biodiesel yield of 89.5% was achieved under the predicted optimal conditions and fulfilled the ASTM D6751 biodiesel fuel standards. The promising features of the chicken and fish bones catalyst are inexpensive, easily obtained, simple work-up, simple recovery, reusability without significant drop in catalytic activity for up to four consecutive runs.
•Waste chicken and fish bone were utilized for biodiesel production as solid catalyst.•RSM was implemented to optimize the transesterification process.•The prepared catalyst was reusable without significant loss in its activity.•Maximum 89.5% yield at 1.98%w/v catalyst and alcohol/oil ratio of 10:1 at 65 °C in 1.54 h.
This paper reported the optimization of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil catalyzed by solid ostrich-eggshell and chicken-eggshell derived CaO via transesterification process using response ...surface methodology (RSM) and Taguchi method. Quadratic polynomial equations were obtained for transesterification reaction. Independent variables i.e. molar ratio of methanol to oil (M:O), catalyst concentration, reaction temperature and reaction time were investigated. It was found that the most influential parameter on the biodiesel production was reaction temperature based on both RSM and Taguchi method. The optimum biodiesel yield of ∼98% (ostrich eggshell) and ∼96% (chicken eggshell) were achieved at M:O of ∼10:1; catalyst concentration of ∼1.5 %w/v; reaction temperature of 65 °C; and reaction time of ∼2 h for RSM and Taguchi method, respectively.
•Mathematic model is developed to optimize biodiesel yield via ostrich-eggshell CaO catalyst.•Taguchi and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) were employed for process optimization.•Both are shown to be a precise and imperative tool to predict the biodiesel yield in this study.
Nowadays, biodiesel is an alternative fuel to replace the existing petroleum-based diesel. The advantages of biodiesel are good combustion efficiency, high-lubricity, biodegradability and low ...toxicity. Biodiesel can be an alternate fuel to be used for running diesel engines. This paper is to present a comprehensive review on the past efforts to enhance and commercially improve the transesterification by using homogeneous base catalyst, e.g. sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. By introducing heterogeneous base catalyst such as calcium oxide which was made from waste material such as chicken eggshell, quail eggshell and ostrich eggshell it may cater the excessive washing problem to remove the excessive reactants and glycerol. It is also an environment friendly way of recycling the waste eggshells; nevertheless, the NOx emission remains high – around 5–10% more than conventional diesel fuel. Thus, subsequently, this paper also discusses emulsification of biodiesel with water to investigate its influence on the overall diesel engine performance which includes a comparison study of gas emission from pure biodiesel, diesel and emulsion of biodiesel and water. Compared with conventional biodiesel, some of the notable advantages from this water emulsified biodiesel are the emission reduction of NOx, particular matter, unburned hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide.
•Different composition of diesel fuel, biodiesel and bioethanol emulsions were examined.•The fuels were tested in a direct injection diesel engine and parameters were evaluated.•Engine power, torque, ...exhaust gas temperature & fuel consumptions were compared.•Emulsions fuels emitted lower CO and CO2 than fossil diesel.•Lower NOx emission was observed at medium engine speeds and loads for emulsion fuels.
In this research work, the experimental investigation of the effect of diesel-biodiesel-bioethanol emulsion fuels on combustion, performance and emission of a direct injection (DI) diesel engine are reported. Four kind of emulsion fuels were employed: B (diesel-80%, biodiesel-20% by volume), C (diesel-80%, biodiesel-15%, bioethanol-5%), D (diesel-80%, biodiesel-10%, bioethanol-10%) and E (diesel-80%, biodiesel-5%, bioethanol-15%) to compare its’ performance with the conventional diesel, A. These emulsion fuels were prepared by mechanical homogenizer machine with the help of Tween 80 (1% v/v) and Span 80 (0.5% v/v) as surfactants. The emulsion characteristics were determined by optical electron microscope, emulsification stability test, FTIR, and the physiochemical properties of the emulsion fuels which were all done by following ASTM test methods. The prepared emulsion fuels were then tested in diesel engine test bed to obtain engine performance and exhaust emissions. All the engine experiments were conducted with engine speeds varying from 1600 to 2400rpm. The results showed the heating value and density of the emulsion fuels decrease as the bioethanol content in the blend increases. The total heating value of the diesel-biodiesel-bioethanol fuels were averagely 21% higher than the total heating value of the pure biodiesel and slightly lower (2%) than diesel fuel. The engine power, torque and exhaust gas temperature were reduced when using emulsion fuels. The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for the emulsion fuels were observed to be higher in comparison to diesel, A. The CO2 (carbon dioxide) and CO (carbon monoxide) emissions were reported to be lower than diesel oil. The effect of using emulsion fuels decreased the NOx (nitrogen oxides) emissions at medium engine speeds, i.e. approximately 30.0%. Lesser NOx emission was attributed by the reduction of cetane number of the diesel-biodiesel-bioethanol emulsion fuels’ cetane number as the amount of bioethanol increases. However, the emissions of NOx were found to increase gradually at low speed (∼1600rpm), high load; high speed (∼2400rpm), medium load conditions. It was found that the combustion performance and emissions of the diesel engine very much depend on the fuel, its emulsion combination types and engine operating conditions.
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•The first generation to the fourth generation of biodiesel feedstocks, along with oil extraction techniques are reviewed.•Types of catalyst for transesterification including ...homogeneous, heterogeneous, and enzyme catalyst are reviewed.•Applications of biochar as catalyst and magnetic catalyst for transesterification of biodiesel are reviewed.•Different types and applications of biodiesel producing reactors are discussed.
The ever-detrimental condition of the environment due to the fossil fuel utilization has catalyzed the development of biodiesel. Biodiesel is produced mainly via transesterification and the entire process comprises of several major components; the feedstock, the catalyst, the reaction, and the product separation or purification. There are various factors affecting the amount and quality of biodiesel produced, such as the type and amount of feedstock and catalyst, alcohol-to-feedstock ratio, and reaction temperature and time. The performance of biodiesel reactors in providing energy and time efficient biodiesel production is also among the subject of recent studies. To produce biodiesel commercially and efficiently, it is important to recognize the novel technologies that are promising for biodiesel production. With this in mind, this article presents a review of the recent advancement and classification of the feedstock, the catalyst for biodiesel production, and the biodiesel production reactor. Furthermore, this article also highlights the development and application of oil extraction techniques, biochar as a biodiesel catalyst, and the magnetic biodiesel catalyst. The biodiesel production reactor and parameters optimization are also discussed in this article in order to provide a better context on the chemical reaction.
Contamination of water resources by industrial effluents containing heavy metal ions and management of solid waste from agricultural and food industries is a serious issue. This study presents the ...valorization of waste walnut shells as an effective and environment-friendly biosorbent for sequestrating Cr(VI) from aqueous media. The native walnut shell powder (NWP) was chemically modified with alkali (AWP) and citric acid (CWP) to obtain modified biosorbents with abundant availability of pores as active centers, as confirmed by BET analysis. During batch adsorption studies, the process parameters for Cr(VI) adsorption were optimized at pH 2.0. The adsorption data were fitted to isotherm and kinetic models to compute various adsorption parameters. The adsorption pattern of Cr(VI) was well explained by the Langmuir model suggesting the adsorbate monolayer formation on the surface of the biosorbents. The maximum adsorption capacity, q
for Cr(VI) was achieved for CWP (75.26 mg/g), followed by AWP (69.56 mg/g) and NWP (64.82 mg/g). Treatment with sodium hydroxide and citric acid improved the adsorption efficiency of the biosorbent by 4.5 and 8.2%, respectively. The endothermic and spontaneous adsorption was observed to trail the pseudo-second-order kinetics under optimized process parameters. Thus, the chemically modified walnut shell powder can be an eco-friendly adsorbent for Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions.
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Biodiesel serves as an ideal candidate for alternative fuel as it is made from renewable source with lower pollutant emission. However, current biodiesel production has several issues ...such as unrecoverable catalyst, expensive separation stage and high wastewater generation due to the use of homogeneous catalyst. Currently, there are several pathways to produce biodiesel without the problems stated above such as supercritical condition transesterification and enzymatic catalyst. However, the economic feasibility for both methods serve as a major hindrance due to extremely high pressure and pressure, expensive synthetic cost of enzyme, which lead to higher operation cost. At the present, heterogeneous catalyst is the alternative, especially heterogeneous catalyst derived from natural resources such as waste biomass are currently being extensively researched with promising results. Thus, this paper illustrates the comprehensive research of biodiesel synthesis and assesses the latest breakthroughs involved in the use of catalysts derived from waste biomass. Furthermore, an amalgam of experimental data obtained from similar literature has been thoroughly reviewed to provide a better framework to produce biodiesel. Apart from that, this study aims to alleviate problems associated with heterogeneous catalyst separation and enhance the economic viability of the industry, thus, sustaining the environment while meeting energy demands.
Substantial discharge of hazardous substances, especially dyes and heavy metal ions to the environment, has become a global concern due to many industries neglecting the environmental protocols in ...waste management. A massive discharge of contaminantsfrom different anthropogenic activities, can pose alarming threats to living species and adverse effect to the ecosystem stability. In the process of treating the polluted water, various methods and materials are used. Hybrid nanocomposites have attained numerous interest due to the combination of remarkable features of the organic and inorganic elements in a single material. In this regards, carbon and polymer based nanocomposites have gained particular interest because of their tremendous magnetic properties and stability. These nanocomposites can be fabricated using several approaches that include filling, template, hydrothermal, pulsed-laser irradiation, electro-spinning, detonation induced reaction, pyrolysis, ball milling, melt-blending, and many more. Moreover, carbon-based and polymer-based magnetic nanocomposites have been utilized for an extensive number of applications such as removal of heavy metal and dye adsorbents, magnetic resonance imaging, and drug delivery. This review emphasized mainly on the production of magnetic carbon and polymer nanocomposites employing various approaches and their applications in water and wastewater treatment. Furthermore, the future opportunities and challenges in applying magnetic nanocomposites for heavy metal ion and dye removal from water and wastewater treatment plant.
Multiple ecological contaminants in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are vented into ecosystems due to the huge growth of industrialization, which is today at the forefront of worldwide attention. ...High-efficiency removal of these environmental pollutants is a must because of the potential harm to public health and biodiversity. The alarming concern has led to the synthesis of improved nanomaterials for removing pollutants. A path to innovative methods for identifying and preventing several obnoxious, hazardous contaminants from entering the environment is grabbing attention. Various applications in diverse industries are seen as a potential directions for researchers. MXene is a new, excellent, and advanced material that has received greater importance related to the environmental application. Due to its unique physicochemical and mechanical properties, high specific surface area, physiological compatibility, strong electrodynamics, and raised specific surface area wettability, its applications are growing. This review paper examines the most recent methods and trends for environmental pollutant removal using advanced 2D Mxene materials. In addition, the history and the development of MXene synthesis were elaborated. Furthermore, an extreme summary of various environmental pollutants removal has been discussed, and the future challenges along with their future perspectives have been illustrated.
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•The most crucial aspects of MXene materials are covered in the present studies.•MXenes with lots of terminal functional groups perform well.•The most recent developments in MXene materials technique are also covered in this review.•The characteristics of MXene material are also a focus of current research.•Application of Mxene materials for environmental remediation.
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