This research analyzes the relationship between the city of Santiago de Chile and the Mapocho River as a space for risks and threat during the 18th century. In order to do this, we observed the ...responses of the population and the civil and ecclesiastical authorities against the dangers of the river when the city was the scene of several threats such as diseases, droughts, rains, fluvial floods and the melting of the Cordillera. We have used various sources such as travelers' reports, official communications, technical reports, the debates of the Cabildo de Santiago, and printed works contemporary to the studio. The results allow us to conclude that the episodes of floods, droughts and epidemic outbreaks transformed the Mapocho River into a geosymbol for disasters in the social and institutional images of the city.
Cette recherche analyse la relation entre la ville de Santiago du Chili et le fleuve Mapocho en tant qu'espace de risques et de menaces au XVIIIe siècle. Pour lui, vous pouvez voir la réponse de la population et des autorités civiles et ecclésiastiques aux dangers du fleuve alors que la ville était le théâtre de divers dangers tels que maladies, séquelles, rivières, crues fluviales et crues des montagnes. Nous avons utilisé diverses sources telles que des rapports de voyage, des communications officielles, des rapports techniques, des débats dans le Cabildo de Santiago et des imprimés contemporains dans l'étude. Les résultats permettent de conclure que les épisodes d'inondations, de séquences et d'épidémies transforment la rivière Mapocho en un géosymbole de catastrophes dans l'imaginaire social et institutionnel de la ville.
Questa ricerca analizza il rapporto della città di Santiago del Cile con il fiume Mapocho come spazio di rischi e minacce durante il XVIII secolo. Per fare ciò si osservano le risposte della popolazione e delle autorità civili ed ecclesiastiche ai pericoli del fiume quando la città era teatro di varie minacce come malattie, siccità, piogge, alluvioni fluviali e scioglimenti montuosi. Per lo studio abbiamo utilizzato varie fonti come resoconti di viaggiatori, comunicazioni ufficiali, rapporti tecnici, dibattiti del Cabildo de Santiago e opere a stampa contemporanee. I risultati ci consentono di concludere che gli episodi di inondazioni, siccità ed epidemie hanno trasformato il fiume Mapocho in un geosimbolo di disastri nell'immaginario sociale e istituzionale della città.
Esta pesquisa analisa a relação da cidade de Santiago do Chile com o rio Mapocho como espaço de riscos e ameaças durante o século XVIII. Para isso, observam-se as respostas da população e das autoridades civis e eclesiásticas aos perigos do rio, quando a cidade foi palco de várias ameaças como doenças, secas, chuvas, cheias de rios e derretimentos de montanhas. Para o estudo, utilizamos várias fontes, como relatos de viajantes, comunicações oficiais, relatórios técnicos, os debates do Cabildo de Santiago e obras impressas contemporâneas. Os resultados permitem concluir que os episódios de enchentes, secas e surtos epidêmicos transformaram o rio Mapocho em um geossimbolo de desastres no imaginário social e institucional da cidade.
Esta investigación analiza la relación de la ciudad de Santiago de Chile con el río Mapocho como espacio de riesgos y amenazas durante el siglo XVIII. Para ello, se observan las respuestas de la población y de las autoridades civiles y eclesiásticas frente a los peligros del río cuando la ciudad era el escenario de diversas amenazas como las enfermedades, las sequías, las lluvias, las inundaciones fluviales y los deshielos cordilleranos. Hemos utilizado varias fuentes como relatos de viajeros, comunicaciones oficiales, informes técnicos, los debates del Cabildo de Santiago, y obras impresas contemporáneas al estudio. Los resultados permiten concluir que los episodios de inundaciones, sequías y brotes epidémicos transformaron al río Mapocho en un geosímbolo de desastres en el imaginario social e institucional de la ciudad.
The research analyzes the various practices, confrontations –and the respective punishments by the authorities– that arose in periods of drought and water scarcity in Santiago de Chile during the ...eighteenth century. The measures taken by the neighbors and by the institutions were reconstructed and compared. For this, we focus mainly on the minutes of the council, official communications located in the collections of the Captaincy General and Royal Audience (National Historical Archive, Chile), as well as in the General Archive of the Indies. The results show that the neighbors continuously transgressed the rules on the distribution of water not only in times of climatic extremism, for which it became a daily practice that allowed to notice a structural conflict related to the management and control of the natural resource, especially disputed by social actors with economic interests.
La recherche analyse les différentes pratiques, les confrontations –et les sanctions respectives par les autorités– qui ont surgi dans les périodes de sécheresse et de pénurie d'eau à Santiago du Chili au cours du XVIIIe siècle. Les mesures prises par les voisins et par les institutions ont été reconstituées et comparées. Pour cela, nous nous concentrons principalement sur les procès–verbaux du conseil, les communications officielles situées dans les collections de la Capitainerie Générale et de l'Audience Royale (Archives Historiques Nationales, Chili), ainsi que dans les Archives Générales des Indes. Les résultats montrent que les voisins ont continuellement transgressé les règles sur la distribution de l'eau non seulement en période d'extrémisme climatique, pour lesquels s’est devenu une pratique quotidienne qui a permis de constater un conflit structurel lié à la gestion et au contrôle de la ressource naturelle, particulièrement contesté. Par des acteurs sociaux ayant des intérêts économiques.
La ricerca analizza le varie pratiche, i confronti –e le rispettive punizioni da parte delle autorità– sorti in periodi di siccità e scarsità d'acqua a Santiago del Cile nel corso del XVIII secolo. Sono state ricostruite e confrontate le misure prese dai vicini e dalle istituzioni. Per questo, ci concentriamo principalmente sui verbali del consiglio, comunicazioni ufficiali che si trovano nelle collezioni della Capitaneria Generale e dell'udienza Reale (Archivio Storico Nazionale, Cile), nonché nell'Archivio Generale delle Indie. I risultati mostrano che i vicini hanno trasgredito continuamente le regole sulla distribuzione dell'acqua non solo in tempi di estremismo climatico, per cui è diventata una pratica quotidiana che ha permesso di notare un conflitto strutturale legato alla gestione e al controllo della risorsa naturale, particolarmente conteso da attori sociali con interessi economici.
A pesquisa analisa as várias práticas, confrontos –e as respectivas punições por parte das autoridades– que surgiram em períodos de seca e escassez de água em Santiago do Chile durante o século XVIII. As medidas tomadas pelos vizinhos e pelas instituições foram reconstruídas e comparadas. Para isso, nos concentramos principalmente nas atas do conselho, comunicações oficiais localizadas nos acervos da Capitania Geral e Audiência Real (Arquivo Histórico Nacional, Chile), bem como no Arquivo Geral das Índias. Os resultados mostram que os vizinhos transgrediam continuamente as regras de distribuição de água não apenas em tempos de extremismo climático, pelo que se tornou uma prática cotidiana que permitiu perceber um conflito estrutural relacionado à gestão e controle do recurso natural, especialmente disputado por atores sociais com interesses econômicos.
La investigación analiza las diversas prácticas, confrontaciones –y los respectivos castigos por parte de las autoridades– que se suscitaron en períodos de sequías y de escasez hídrica en Santiago de Chile durante el siglo XVIII. Se reconstruyeron y compararon las medidas tomadas por los vecinos y por las instituciones. Para ello, nos enfocamos principalmente en las actas del cabildo, comunicaciones oficiales localizadas en los fondos de Capitanía General y Real Audiencia (Archivo Nacional Histórico, Chile), así como en el Archivo General de Indias. Los resultados arrojan que los vecinos transgredieron continuamente las normas sobre la distribución del agua no solamente en tiempos de extremismo climático, por lo que se convirtió en una práctica cotidiana que permitió advertir un conflicto estructural relativo al manejo y control del recurso natural, especialmente disputado por actores sociales con intereses económicos.
Background: Dialysis patients have impaired host defense mechanisms and frequently require antibiotics for various infective complications. In this study, we investigated whether dialysis patients ...have greater risk for Clostridium dif?cileassociated diarrhea (CDAD). Methods: During the 4-year study period (2004-2008), 85 patients with CDAD were identi?ed based on a retrospective review of C dif?cile toxin assay or histology records. Nosocomial diarrheal patients without CDAD were considered as controls (n¼403). We assessed the association between renal function and the prevalence and clinical outcomes of CDAD. Results: There was a signi?cant difference in the prevalence rate of chronic kidney disease (CKD) between CDAD and non-CDAD patients (Po0.001). Sixteen patients (18.8%) of the CDAD group were treated with dialysis, whereas 21 patients (5.2%) of the non-CDAD group were treated with dialysis. There was a signi?cant association between renal function and CDAD in patients on dialysis odds ratio (OR)¼4.44, 95% con?dence interval (CI) 2.19-8.99, Po0.001, but not in patients with CKD stage 3-5 (OR¼1.10, 95% CI 0.63-1.92, P¼0.73). In multivariate analysis, CKD stage 5D was an independent risk factor for the development of CDAD (OR¼13.36, 95% CI 2.94-60.67, P¼0.001). Conclusion: Our data indicate that dialysis patients might be at a greater risk of developing CDAD, which suggests that particular attention should be provided to CDAD when antibiotic treatment is administered to dialysis patients.
On 11 September 1973, the Chilean Chief of the Armed Forces Augusto Pinochet overthrew the Popular Unity government of Salvador Allende and installed a military dictatorship. Yet this is a book not ...of parties or ideologies but public history. It focuses on the memorials and memorialisers at seven sites of torture, extermination, and disappearance in Santiago, engaging with worldwide debates about why and how deeds of violence inflicted by the state on its own citizens should be remembered, and by whom. The sites investigated — including the infamous National Stadium — are among the most iconic of more than 1,000 such sites throughout the country. The study grants a glimpse of the depth of feeling that survivors and the families of the detained-disappeared and the politically executed bring to each of the sites. The book traces their struggle to memorialise each one, and so unfolds their idealism and hope, courage and frustration, their hatred, excitement, resentment, sadness, fear, division and disillusionment. ‘This is a beautifully written book, a sensitive treatment of the issues and lives of those who have faced a great deal of loss, most often as unsung heroes, in what are now recognized as Chilean sites of memory. The book is a testament to people who have not been asked to speak, until Peter Read and Marivic Wyndham ask them to tell their stories. They do not shy away from hard tensions about memorialization, the difficulties of challenging a powerful state and the long and arduous struggles to ensure less powerful voices are heard.’ — Professor Katherine Hite, Frederick Ferris Thompson Chair of Political Science, Vassar College, USA.
This book studies the political role of the Chilean military during the years 1808-1826. Beginning with the fall of the Spanish monarchy to Napoleon in 1808 and ending immediately after the last ...royalist contingents were expelled from the island of Chiloé, it does not seek to give a full picture of the participation of military men on the battlefield but rather to interpret their involvement in local politics. In so doing, this book aims to make a contribution to the understanding of Chile’s revolution of independence, as well as to discuss some of the most recent historiographical contributions on the role of the military in the creation of the Chilean republic. Although the focus is placed on the career and participation of Chilean revolutionary officers, this book also provides an overview of both the role of royalist armies and the influence of international events in Chile.
At its height in the first half of the seventeenth century, the Dutch West India Company controlled a scattered but sizeable portion of the western hemisphere, from present-day Albany, New York, to ...northeast Brazil. In 1647, the Dutch historian, theologian, and philosopher Caspar van Baerle created a landmark historical narrative, which he published in Latin.
Now, after more than 350 years, the definitive record of the brief period when the Dutch ruled Brazil is available in English for the first time. Included are rare historical descriptions of relations with the native population, the indigenous flora and fauna, the workings of the sugar economy, attitudes toward private property and religious pluralism, global intrigue involving the Spanish and Portuguese, and the development of the slave trade. The original illustrations and maps from van Baerle’s volume--a number of which are reproduced here--were used by Europeans well into the nineteenth century.
The in vitro gut model is an invaluable research tool to study indigenous gut microbiota communities, the behavior of pathogenic organisms, and the therapeutic and adverse effect of antimicrobial ...administration on these communities. The model has been validated against the intestinal contents of sudden death victims to reflect the physicochemical and microbiological conditions of the proximal to distal colon, and has been extensively used to investigate the interplay between gut microbiota populations, antibiotic exposure, and Clostridium difficile infection. More recently the gut model has been adapted to additionally model intestinal biofilm. Here we describe the structure, assembly, and application of the biofilm gut model.
Aymara Indians are a geographically isolated, indigenous people living in the Andes Mountains near Chile’s Atacama Desert, one of the most arid regions of the world. As rapid economic growth in ...the area has begun to divert scarce water to hydroelectric and agricultural projects, the Aymara struggle to maintain their sustainable and traditional systems of water use, agriculture, and pastoralism.
In Aymara Indian Perspectives on Development in the Andes , Amy Eisenberg provides a detailed exploration of the ethnoecological dimensions of the tension between the Aymara, whose economic, spiritual, and social life are inextricably tied to land and water, and three major challenges: the paving of Chile Highway 11, the diversion of the Altiplano waters of the Río Lauca for irrigation and power-generation, and Chilean national park policies regarding Aymara communities, their natural resources, and cultural properties within Parque Nacional Lauca, the International Biosphere Reserve. 
Pursuing collaborative research, Eisenberg performed ethnographic interviews with Aymara people in more than sixteen Andean villages, some at altitudes of 4,600 meters. Drawing upon botany, agriculture, natural history, physical and cultural geography, history, archaeology and social and environmental impact assessment, she presents deep, multifaceted insights from the Aymara’s point of view.
Illustrated with maps and dramatic photographs by John Amato, Aymara Indian Perspectives on Development provides an account of indigenous perspectives and concerns related to economic development that will be invaluable to scholars and policy-makers in the fields of natural and cultural resource preservation in and beyond Chile.
This book explores how women in the Chilean workforce and social activists describe and understand globalization and neoliberalism and their impact on their nation and the lives of Chilean women. By ...examining national policies, quantitative measures of development, and how various women in the labor force and political and community organizations perceive and live within the Chilean economy, Clark shows the dynamic relationship between national and international policies and gender inequality.
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