Since 2004, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) store all samples collected at summer Olympic Games (OG) for retrospective re-analysis with more advanced analytical techniques to catch doping ...athletes.
All announced Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) from IOC re-tests of the 2004, 2008 and 2012 OG (via IOC, International Federations and Athletics Integrity Unit public data) and other ADRVs confirmed to impact OG results from 1968 to 2012 (via the list of Doping Irregularities on olympedia.org) were collated to investigate how many medals have been impacted by ADRVs, when the ADRV was identified relative to the OG in question and its cause.
One hundred and thirty-four medals were impacted by ADRVs but only 26% of these ADRVs were identified at the time of the OG. Most ADRVs impacting medal results (74%) were identified retrospectively, either from events prior to the OG (17%) or via IOC re-tests of samples from 2004, 2008 and 2012 (57%). ADRVs impacting medal results from these re-tests took a mean of 6.8 ± 2.0 years to be announced relative to the end of the OG in which the medal was originally won. Exogenous Anabolic Androgenic Steroid metabolites were present in 90% of all athlete (n = 142) samples from IOC re-tests with dehydrochloromethyltestosterone and stanozolol accounting for 79% of detected substances. Athletics (n = 64) and weightlifting (n = 62) were the most affected sports.
This analysis shows the frequency of targeted pre-OG Out-of-Competition testing should increase. We advocate for long-term sample storage to continue and additionally incorporate novel and potentially complementary technologies/sample matrices.
From the “landmark” Alston v. NCAA antitrust decision, we examine whether the legally hypothesized fan wage-repugnance effect implies procompetitive benefits in NCAA sports output markets via ...increased output demand from student-athlete wage restriction. In Alston v. NCAA, the Courts took this benefit as given but failed to recognize the empirically-verified relationship between league talent and fan demand. We assume a legally-hypothesized wage-repugnance line exists and present a theoretical output-demand model functionally dependent upon allocations in a wage-constrained labor-input market. Even given fan repugnance, wage restrictions do not necessarily generate procompetitive benefits. For families of model parameterizations, wage restrictions impose anticompetitive harm.
Evidence concerning physical activity and mental health remains less well documented for children and adolescents. An updated review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses was undertaken concerning ...physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents, and to judge the extent to which associations can be considered causal.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were identified to update our previous review of reviews (Biddle & Asare, 2011), with papers identified between November 2010 and the end of 2017. Criteria were used to judge causality (Hill, 1965), including strength of association, dose-response association, and experimental evidence.
Since 2011, the quantity (k = 42 reviews) and quality of research has increased in depression (evidence from 10 reviews), self-esteem (10 reviews) and cognitive functioning (25 reviews). Anxiety had only three new, small, reviews. Intervention effects for depression are moderate in strength while observational data show only small or null associations. Variable effect sizes are evident from interventions for the reduction of anxiety and improvement in self-esteem. Higher or improved fitness and physical activity are associated with better cognitive health and performance. There was partial support for a causal association with depression, a lack of support for self-esteem, but support for cognitive functioning.
There are significant increases in research activity concerning physical activity and depression, self-esteem, and cognitive functioning in young people. The strongest evidence for a causal association appears to be for cognitive functioning, and there is partial evidence for depression.
•Systematic reviews on physical activity and depression, self-esteem, and cognitive functioning in youth have expanded.•There is evidence for a causal association between physical activity and cognitive functioning in young people.•There is partial evidence for a causal association between physical activity and depression in young people.•There is no evidence for a causal association between physical activity and self-esteem in youth, but the field is complex.
Background
Nicotine is a psychostimulant drug with purported use in sports environments, though the use of nicotine among athletes has not been studied extensively.
Objective
The aim of this study ...was to assess the nicotine positivity rate in 60,802 anti-doping urine samples from 2012 to 2020.
Methods
Urine samples obtained in-competition at different national and international sports events held in Italy during the period 2012–2020 were analysed. All samples were from anonymous athletes that were collected and analysed at the WADA-accredited antidoping laboratory in Rome, Italy. Samples were analysed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, with a cut-off concentration for nicotine of > 50 ng/mL. Results were stratified by year, sport and sex.
Results
An overall mean of 22.7% of the samples (
n
= 13,804; males:
n
= 11,099; females:
n
= 2705) showed nicotine intake, with male samples also displaying higher positivity rates than female (24.1% vs 18.5%). Sample positivity was higher during 2012–2014 (25–33%) than 2015–2020 (15–20%). Samples from team sports displayed a higher positivity rate than those from individual sports (31.4 vs 14.1%).
Conclusions
The current data demonstrates that one in five samples from a range of 90 sports test positive for nicotine in-competition. There is a lower positivity rate in endurance versus power/strength athletes and higher positivity rate in team versus individual sports, probably accounted for by differences in physiological and psychological demands and the desire for socialisation. WADA, international and national sports federations should consider these findings with concern, proactively investigate this phenomenon and act in order to protect the health and welfare of its athletes.
This paper examines volunteers in English golf clubs and considers how they interpret their roles. Hitherto, typologies of sports club volunteering have coalesced around organisational context or the ...time commitment of volunteers. However, these typologies are limited in capturing intra-organisational complexity, recognising the diverse activities that volunteers perform and reflecting changes in the operating and public policy environments. A grounded theory study was therefore undertaken to explore how sports club volunteers interpret their roles. Golf club volunteering was chosen as the substantive case since golf is a globally significant sport that is facing participation and sustainability challenges. Data was collected and analysed from documents and twenty-one semi-structured interviews. The study found that golf club volunteers tend to interpret their roles in two main ways: with a business management approach that is orientated towards business-like management, customer satisfaction and competing in the contemporary marketplace; and, with a sporting perspective that is orientated towards organising play. Some volunteers combined both aspects, although such hybridity presented significant challenges. The study concludes with a discussion of how the influence of sport policy may be limited by volunteers' subjective interpretations of their role and club context.
Sport participation is a claimed benefit of elite sport events, but the facts do not support that claim, and means to capitalise upon events in order to build participation have yet to be developed. ...Through a combination of dialectical inquiry, brainstorming, and nominal group, 12 expert panellists were invited to consider the challenges, opportunities, and prospects of leveraging sport events to enhance sport participation at local levels. The model consists of three elements: (1) the hierarchical nature of the context (culture; opinions and attitudes; systems and structures), (2) three types of organisations with a stake in the leveraging process (event, sport, and non-sport entities), and (3) resources needed (human, physical, and knowledge). The centre reflects the core, which is sport participation. A series of strategic questions are presented to guide formulation and implementation of strategies and tactics for leveraging sport events to build sport participation. The findings are consistent with sport development outcomes from the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games. It is concluded that sport events can be leveraged to enhance sport participation if the necessary alliances among sport organisations, event organisers and non-sport stakeholders are forged to integrate each event into the marketing mix of sport organisations. It is also noted that potential barriers to enhanced participation need to be addressed, particularly lack of available capacity to absorb new participants, crowding out of local participation by the event, and the disincentives resulting from elite performances that seem outside the reach of aspiring participants.
ObjectiveTo evaluate best practices for neuromuscular training (NMT) injury prevention warm-up programme dissemination and implementation (D&I) in youth team sports, including characteristics, ...contextual predictors and D&I strategy effectiveness.DesignSystematic review.Data sourcesSeven databases were searched.EligibilityThe literature search followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Inclusion criteria: participation in a team sport, ≥70% youth participants (<19 years), D&I outcomes with/without NMT-related D&I strategies. The risk of bias was assessed using the Downs & Black checklist.ResultsOf 8334 identified papers, 68 were included. Sport participants included boys, girls and coaches. Top sports were soccer, basketball and rugby. Study designs included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) (29.4%), cross-sectional (23.5%) and quasi-experimental studies (13.2%). The median Downs & Black score was 14/33. Injury prevention effectiveness (vs efficacy) was rarely (8.3%) prioritised across the RCTs evaluating NMT programmes. Two RCTs (2.9%) used Type 2/3 hybrid approaches to investigate D&I strategies. 19 studies (31.6%) used D&I frameworks/models. Top barriers were time restrictions, lack of buy-in/support and limited benefit awareness. Top facilitators were comprehensive workshops and resource accessibility. Common D&I strategies included Workshops with supplementary Resources (WR; n=24) and Workshops with Resources plus in-season Personnel support (WRP; n=14). WR (70%) and WRP (64%) were similar in potential D&I effect. WR and WRP had similar injury reduction (36–72%) with higher adherence showing greater effectiveness.ConclusionsWorkshops including supplementary resources supported the success of NMT programme implementation, however, few studies examined effectiveness. High-quality D&I studies are needed to optimise the translation of NMT programmes into routine practice in youth sport.
Background:
Medial ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) reconstruction is a common procedure performed on Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers in the United States.
Purpose:
To determine (1) the rate of ...return to pitching (RTP) in the MLB after UCL reconstruction, (2) the RTP rate in either the MLB and minor league combined, (3) performance after RTP, and (4) the difference in the RTP rate and performance between pitchers who underwent UCL reconstruction and matched controls without UCL injuries.
Study Design:
Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.
Methods:
Major League Baseball pitchers with symptomatic medial UCL deficiency who underwent UCL reconstruction were evaluated. All player, elbow, and surgical demographic data were analyzed. Controls matched by age, body mass index, position, handedness, and MLB experience and performance were selected from the MLB during the same years as those undergoing UCL reconstruction. An “index year” was designated for controls, analogous to the UCL reconstruction year in cases. Return to pitching and performance measures in the MLB were compared between cases and controls. Student t tests were performed for analysis of within-group and between-group variables, respectively.
Results:
A total of 179 pitchers with UCL tears who underwent reconstruction met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Of these, 148 pitchers (83%) were able to RTP in the MLB, and 174 pitchers were able to RTP in the MLB and minor league combined (97.2%), while only 5 pitchers (2.8%) were never able to RTP in either the MLB or minor league. Pitchers returned to the MLB at a mean 20.5 ± 9.72 months after UCL reconstruction. The length of career in the MLB after UCL reconstruction was 3.9 ± 2.84 years, although 56 of these patients were still currently actively pitching in the MLB at the start of the 2013 season. The revision rate was 3.9%. In the year before UCL reconstruction, pitching performance declined significantly in the cases versus controls in the number of innings pitched, games played, and wins and the winning percentage (P < .05). After surgery, pitchers showed significantly improved performance versus before surgery (fewer losses, a lower losing percentage, lower earned run average ERA, threw fewer walks, and allowed fewer hits, runs, and home runs) (P < .05). Comparisons between cases and controls for the time frame after UCL reconstruction (cases) or the index year (controls) demonstrated that cases had significantly (P < .05) fewer losses per season and a lower losing percentage. In addition, cases had a significantly lower ERA and allowed fewer walks and hits per inning pitched.
Conclusion:
There is a high rate of RTP in professional baseball after UCL reconstruction. Performance declined before surgery and improved after surgery. When compared with demographic-matched controls, patients who underwent UCL reconstruction had better results in multiple performance measures. Reconstruction of the UCL allows for a predictable and successful return to the MLB.
Identifying neuromuscular screening factors for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is a critical step toward large-scale deployment of effective ACL injury-prevention programs. The Landing Error ...Scoring System (LESS) is a valid and reliable clinical assessment of jump-landing biomechanics.
To investigate the ability of the LESS to identify individuals at risk for ACL injury in an elite-youth soccer population.
Cohort study.
Field-based functional movement screening performed at soccer practice facilities.
A total of 829 elite-youth soccer athletes (348 boys, 481 girls; age = 13.9 ± 1.8 years, age range = 11 to 18 years), of whom 25% (n = 207) were less than 13 years of age.
Baseline preseason testing for all participants consisted of a jump-landing task (3 trials). Participants were followed prospectively throughout their soccer seasons for diagnosis of ACL injuries (1217 athlete-seasons of follow-up).
Landings were scored for "errors" in technique using the LESS. We used receiver operator characteristic curves to determine a cutpoint on the LESS. Sensitivity and specificity of the LESS in predicting ACL injury were assessed.
Seven participants sustained ACL injuries during the follow-up period; the mechanism of injury was noncontact or indirect contact for all injuries. Uninjured participants had lower LESS scores (4.43 ± 1.71) than injured participants (6.24 ± 1.75; t1215 = -2.784, P = .005). The receiver operator characteristic curve analyses suggested that 5 was the optimal cutpoint for the LESS, generating a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 64%.
Despite sample-size limitations, the LESS showed potential as a screening tool to determine ACL injury risk in elite-youth soccer athletes.
In professional senior soccer, training load monitoring is used to ensure an optimal workload to maximize physical fitness and prevent injury or illness. However, to date, different training load ...indicators are used without a clear link to training outcomes.
The aim of this systematic review was to identify the state of knowledge with respect to the relationship between training load indicators and training outcomes in terms of physical fitness, injury, and illness.
A systematic search was conducted in four electronic databases (CINAHL, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science). Training load was defined as the amount of stress over a minimum of two training sessions or matches, quantified in either external (e.g., duration, distance covered) or internal load (e.g., heart rate HR), to obtain a training outcome over time.
A total of 6492 records were retrieved, of which 3304 were duplicates. After screening the titles, abstracts and full texts, we identified 12 full-text articles that matched our inclusion criteria. One of these articles was identified through additional sources. All of these articles used correlations to examine the relationship between load indicators and training outcomes. For pre-season, training time spent at high intensity (i.e., >90 % of maximal HR) was linked to positive changes in aerobic fitness. Exposure time in terms of accumulated training, match or combined training, and match time showed both positive and negative relationships with changes in fitness over a season. Muscular perceived exertion may indicate negative changes in physical fitness. Additionally, it appeared that training at high intensity may involve a higher injury risk. Detailed external load indicators, using electronic performance and tracking systems, are relatively unexamined. In addition, most research focused on the relationship between training load indicators and changes in physical fitness, but less on injury and illness.
HR indicators showed relationships with positive changes in physical fitness during pre-season. In addition, exposure time appeared to be related to positive and negative changes in physical fitness. Despite the availability of more detailed training load indicators nowadays, the evidence about the usefulness in relation to training outcomes is rare. Future research should implement continuous monitoring of training load, combined with the individual characteristics, to further examine their relationship with physical fitness, injury, and illness.
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