To determine the tumor tissue/cell distribution, functional associations, and clinical significance of PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 protein expression in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
Using ...multiplexed quantitative immunofluorescence, we performed localized measurements of CD3, PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 protein in >800 clinically annotated NSCLCs from three independent cohorts represented in tissue microarrays. Associations between the marker's expression and major genomic alterations were studied in The Cancer Genome Atlas NSCLC dataset. Using mass cytometry (CyTOF) analysis of leukocytes collected from 20 resected NSCLCs, we determined the levels, coexpression, and functional profile of PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 expressing immune cells. Finally, we measured the markers in baseline samples from 90 patients with advanced NSCLC treated with PD-1 axis blockers and known response to treatment.
PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 were detected in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) from 55%, 41.5%, and 25.3% of NSCLC cases, respectively. These markers showed a prominent association with each other and limited association with major clinicopathologic variables and survival in patients not receiving immunotherapy. Expression of the markers was lower in EGFR-mutated adenocarcinomas and displayed limited association with tumor mutational burden. In single-cell CyTOF analysis, PD-1 and LAG-3 were predominantly localized on T-cell subsets/NKT cells, whereas TIM-3 expression was higher in NK cells and macrophages. Coexpression of PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 was associated with prominent T-cell activation (CD69/CD137), effector function (Granzyme-B), and proliferation (Ki-67), but also with elevated levels of proapoptotic markers (FAS/BIM). LAG-3 and TIM-3 were present in TIL subsets lacking PD-1 expression and showed a distinct functional profile. In baseline samples from 90 patients with advanced NSCLC treated with PD-1 axis blockers, elevated LAG-3 was significantly associated with shorter progression-free survival.
PD-1, LAG-3, and TIM-3 have distinct tissue/cell distribution, functional implications, and genomic correlates in human NSCLC. Expression of these immune inhibitory receptors in TILs is associated with prominent activation, but also with a proapoptotic T-cell phenotype. Elevated LAG-3 expression is associated with insensitivity to PD-1 axis blockade, suggesting independence of these immune evasion pathways.
The results of the Iressa Pan-Asia Study (IPASS), which compared gefitinib and carboplatin/paclitaxel in previously untreated never-smokers and light ex-smokers with advanced pulmonary adenocarcinoma ...were published previously. This report presents overall survival (OS) and efficacy according to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) biomarker status.
In all, 1,217 patients were randomly assigned. Biomarkers analyzed were EGFR mutation (amplification mutation refractory system; 437 patients evaluable), EGFR gene copy number (fluorescent in situ hybridization; 406 patients evaluable), and EGFR protein expression (immunohistochemistry; 365 patients evaluable). OS analysis was performed at 78% maturity. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to assess biomarker status by randomly assigned treatment interactions for progression-free survival (PFS) and OS.
OS (954 deaths) was similar for gefitinib and carboplatin/paclitaxel with no significant difference between treatments overall (hazard ratio HR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.79 to 1.02; P = .109) or in EGFR mutation-positive (HR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.76 to 1.33; P = .990) or EGFR mutation-negative (HR, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.86 to 1.63; P = .309; treatment by EGFR mutation interaction P = .480) subgroups. A high proportion (64.3%) of EGFR mutation-positive patients randomly assigned to carboplatin/paclitaxel received subsequent EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors. PFS was significantly longer with gefitinib for patients whose tumors had both high EGFR gene copy number and EGFR mutation (HR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.34 to 0.67) but significantly shorter when high EGFR gene copy number was not accompanied by EGFR mutation (HR, 3.85; 95% CI, 2.09 to 7.09).
EGFR mutations are the strongest predictive biomarker for PFS and tumor response to first-line gefitinib versus carboplatin/paclitaxel. The predictive value of EGFR gene copy number was driven by coexisting EGFR mutation (post hoc analysis). Treatment-related differences observed for PFS in the EGFR mutation-positive subgroup were not apparent for OS. OS results were likely confounded by the high proportion of patients crossing over to the alternative treatment.
Inactivation of
(
), a specific subunit of the PBAF chromatin remodeling complex, occurs frequently in cancer, including 40% of clear cell renal cell carcinomas (ccRCC). To identify novel therapeutic ...approaches to targeting PBRM1-defective cancers, we used a series of orthogonal functional genomic screens that identified PARP and ATR inhibitors as being synthetic lethal with
deficiency. The PBRM1/PARP inhibitor synthetic lethality was recapitulated using several clinical PARP inhibitors in a series of
model systems and
in a xenograft model of ccRCC. In the absence of exogenous DNA damage, PBRM1-defective cells exhibited elevated levels of replication stress, micronuclei, and R-loops. PARP inhibitor exposure exacerbated these phenotypes. Quantitative mass spectrometry revealed that multiple R-loop processing factors were downregulated in PBRM1-defective tumor cells. Exogenous expression of the R-loop resolution enzyme RNase H1 reversed the sensitivity of PBRM1-deficient cells to PARP inhibitors, suggesting that excessive levels of R-loops could be a cause of this synthetic lethality. PARP and ATR inhibitors also induced cyclic GMP-AMP synthase/stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS/STING) innate immune signaling in PBRM1-defective tumor cells. Overall, these findings provide the preclinical basis for using PARP inhibitors in PBRM1-defective cancers. SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates that PARP and ATR inhibitors are synthetic lethal with the loss of PBRM1, a PBAF-specific subunit, thus providing the rationale for assessing these inhibitors in patients with PBRM1-defective cancer. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/81/11/2888/F1.large.jpg.
Despite the initial successes of immunotherapy, there is an urgent clinical need for molecular assays that identify patients more likely to respond. Here, we report that ultrasensitive measures of ...circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and T-cell expansion can be used to assess responses to immune checkpoint blockade in metastatic lung cancer patients (
= 24). Patients with clinical response to therapy had a complete reduction in ctDNA levels after initiation of therapy, whereas nonresponders had no significant changes or an increase in ctDNA levels. Patients with initial response followed by acquired resistance to therapy had an initial drop followed by recrudescence in ctDNA levels. Patients without a molecular response had shorter progression-free and overall survival compared with molecular responders 5.2 vs. 14.5 and 8.4 vs. 18.7 months; HR 5.36; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.57-18.35;
= 0.007 and HR 6.91; 95% CI, 1.37-34.97;
= 0.02, respectively, which was detected on average 8.7 weeks earlier and was more predictive of clinical benefit than CT imaging. Expansion of T cells, measured through increases of T-cell receptor productive frequencies, mirrored ctDNA reduction in response to therapy. We validated this approach in an independent cohort of patients with early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (
= 14), where the therapeutic effect was measured by pathologic assessment of residual tumor after anti-PD1 therapy. Consistent with our initial findings, early ctDNA dynamics predicted pathologic response to immune checkpoint blockade. These analyses provide an approach for rapid determination of therapeutic outcomes for patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors and have important implications for the development of personalized immune targeted strategies.
Rapid and sensitive detection of circulating tumor DNA dynamic changes and T-cell expansion can be used to guide immune targeted therapy for patients with lung cancer.
.
Checkpoint blockade immunotherapies enable the host immune system to recognize and destroy tumour cells. Their clinical activity has been correlated with activated T-cell recognition of neoantigens, ...which are tumour-specific, mutated peptides presented on the surface of cancer cells. Here we present a fitness model for tumours based on immune interactions of neoantigens that predicts response to immunotherapy. Two main factors determine neoantigen fitness: the likelihood of neoantigen presentation by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and subsequent recognition by T cells. We estimate these components using the relative MHC binding affinity of each neoantigen to its wild type and a nonlinear dependence on sequence similarity of neoantigens to known antigens. To describe the evolution of a heterogeneous tumour, we evaluate its fitness as a weighted effect of dominant neoantigens in the subclones of the tumour. Our model predicts survival in anti-CTLA-4-treated patients with melanoma and anti-PD-1-treated patients with lung cancer. Importantly, low-fitness neoantigens identified by our method may be leveraged for developing novel immunotherapies. By using an immune fitness model to study immunotherapy, we reveal broad similarities between the evolution of tumours and rapidly evolving pathogens.
Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) minimal residual disease (MRD) is a powerful biomarker with the potential to improve survival outcomes for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Multiple groups have shown ...the ability to detect MRD following curative-intent NSCLC treatment using next-generation sequencing-based assays of plasma cell-free DNA. These studies have been modest in size, largely retrospective, and without thorough prospective clinical validation. Still, when restricting measurement to the first post-treatment timepoint to assess the clinical performance of ctDNA MRD detection, they have demonstrated sensitivity for predicting disease relapse ranging between 36% and 100%, and specificity ranging between 71% and 100%. When considering all post-treatment follow-up timepoints (surveillance), including those beyond the initial post-treatment measurement, these assays' performances improve with sensitivity and specificity for identifying relapse ranging from 82% to 100% and 70% to 100%, respectively. In this manuscript, we review the evidence available to date regarding ctDNA MRD detection in patients with NSCLC undergoing curative-intent treatment and the ongoing prospective studies involving ctDNA MRD detection in this patient population.
Lorlatinib is a potent, brain-penetrant, third-generation anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)/ROS1 tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) with robust clinical activity in advanced ALK-positive non-small-cell ...lung cancer, including in patients who have failed prior ALK TKIs. Molecular determinants of response to lorlatinib have not been established, but preclinical data suggest that
resistance mutations may represent a biomarker of response in previously treated patients.
Baseline plasma and tumor tissue samples were collected from 198 patients with ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer from the registrational phase II study of lorlatinib. We analyzed plasma DNA for
mutations using Guardant360. Tumor tissue DNA was analyzed using an
mutation-focused next-generation sequencing assay. Objective response rate, duration of response, and progression-free survival were evaluated according to
mutation status.
Approximately one quarter of patients had
mutations detected by plasma or tissue genotyping. In patients with crizotinib-resistant disease, the efficacy of lorlatinib was comparable among patients with and without
mutations using plasma or tissue genotyping. In contrast, in patients who had failed 1 or more second-generation ALK TKIs, objective response rate was higher among patients with
mutations (62%
32% plasma; 69%
27% tissue). Progression-free survival was similar in patients with and without
mutations on the basis of plasma genotyping (median, 7.3 months
5.5 months; hazard ratio, 0.81) but significantly longer in patients with
mutations identified by tissue genotyping (median, 11.0 months
5.4 months; hazard ratio, 0.47).
In patients who have failed 1 or more second-generation ALK TKIs, lorlatinib shows greater efficacy in patients with
mutations compared with patients without
mutations. Tumor genotyping for
mutations after failure of a second-generation TKI may identify patients who are more likely to derive clinical benefit from lorlatinib.
The emergence of immunotherapy in oncology requires the discovery, validation and subsequent adoption of robust, sensitive and specific predictive and prognostic biomarkers for daily practice. Until ...now, anti-PD-L1 immunohistochemistry (IHC) on tissue sections has been the only validated companion diagnostic test for first-line immunotherapy for advanced and metastatic cancer, notably non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, detection of this biomarker presents limitations that have stimulated the development of other biomarkers and other approaches. Within this context, the use of a liquid biopsy (LB) could provide an important complementary or alternative added value to PD-L1 IHC. In this review, we discuss how LBs have been used in the field of immuno-oncology (I-O) to predict response, relapse or adverse advents for patients undergoing immune-checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy (anti-PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4) and we highlight recent developments. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), proteins and cytokines detected in plasma as well as circulating T-lymphocytes are discussed as potential sources for developing new I-O biomarkers. The quantification of cfDNA as a predictive biomarker, as well as its sequencing for the determination of tumor mutational burden, is already well advanced. Additionally, the quantification of PD-L1 from CTCs, bound on exosomes or free in plasma, as well as the determination of cytokines, are also being actively investigated with promising results having recently been published. Lastly, analysis of T-lymphocytes, especially by analyzing the T-cell receptor, has recently emerged as a valuable biomarker that might become relevant for the prediction of response to ICIs. While LBs have not yet been implemented in routine I-O clinical practice, recent promising data and rapidly advancing technologies indicate that this approach has the potential to soon personalize the clinical management of cancer patients receiving ICIs.
Two major treatment strategies employed in non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC, are tyrosine kinase inhibitors, TKIs, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs. The choice of strategy is based on ...heterogeneous biomarkers that can dynamically change during therapy. Thus, there is a compelling need to identify comprehensive biomarkers that can be used longitudinally to help guide therapy choice. Herein, we report a
F-FDG-PET/CT-based deep learning model, which demonstrates high accuracy in EGFR mutation status prediction across patient cohorts from different institutions. A deep learning score (EGFR-DLS) was significantly and positively associated with longer progression free survival (PFS) in patients treated with EGFR-TKIs, while EGFR-DLS is significantly and negatively associated with higher durable clinical benefit, reduced hyperprogression, and longer PFS among patients treated with ICIs. Thus, the EGFR-DLS provides a non-invasive method for precise quantification of EGFR mutation status in NSCLC patients, which is promising to identify NSCLC patients sensitive to EGFR-TKI or ICI-treatments.
MET exon 14 alterations are actionable oncogenic drivers. Durable responses to MET inhibitors are observed in patients with advanced MET exon 14-altered lung cancers in prospective trials. In ...contrast, the activity of immunotherapy, PD-L1 expression and tumor mutational burden (TMB) of these tumors and are not well characterized.
Patients with MET exon 14-altered lung cancers of any stage treated at two academic institutions were identified. A review of clinicopathologic and molecular features, and an analysis of response to single-agent or combination immune checkpoint inhibition were conducted. PD-L1 immunohistochemistry was carried out and TMB was calculated by estimation from targeted next-generation sequencing panels.
We identified 147 patients with MET exon 14-altered lung cancers. PD-L1 expression of 0%, 1%–49%, and ≥50% were 37%, 22%, and 41%, respectively, in 111 evaluable tumor samples. The median TMB of MET exon 14-altered lung cancers was lower than that of unselected non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) in both independently evaluated cohorts: 3.8 versus 5.7 mutations/megabase (P<0.001, n=78 versus 1769, cohort A), and 7.3 versus 11.8 mutations/megabase (P<0.001, n=62 versus 1100, cohort B). There was no association between PD-L1 expression and TMB (Spearman’s rho=0.18, P=0.069). In response-evaluable patients (n=24), the objective response rate was 17% (95% CI 6% to 36%) and the median progression-free survival was 1.9months (95% CI 1.7–2.7). Responses were not enriched in tumors with PD-L1 expression ≥50% nor high TMB.
A substantial proportion of MET exon 14-altered lung cancers express PD-L1, but the median TMB is lower compared with unselected NSCLCs. Occasional responses to PD-1 blockade can be achieved, but overall clinical efficacy is modest.
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