The Military Balance 2023 Studies, The International Institute for Strategic (IISS)
2023, 2023-02-15
eBook
The Military Balance has been published annually since 1959. The 2023 edition provides an open-source assessment of the armed forces and equipment inventories of 173 countries, with accompanying ...defence economics data. Alongside detailed country data, The Military Balance assesses important military issues, region-by-region, and includes graphics to illustrate these as well as noteworthy equipment developments. Maps this year include a focus on Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine and select China-Russia military cooperation activities. The book draws on the range of data carried in the Military Balance+ online database, particularly the procurement features in each regional section. The accompanying wallchart explores the military use of outer space, an increasingly important element of defence capabilities, focusing on China, Russia and the United States. For those involved in defence and security policymaking, analysis and research, The Military Balance is an indispensable source.
This open access book compares the experiences of large-scale military procurement in Canada and Australia. Focusing on the recent frigate and jet-fighter programmes, it demonstrates how delays ...suffered in delivering weapons systems and platforms in these countries have been caused by misalignments between the strategic requirements set out by the armed forces and government defence policies. By bringing the insights of public management and administration to those of defence studies, the book presents policy options that will help improve the nature of future large-project military procurement. It will appeal to scholars and students of public administration, public management, and defence studies, as well as practitioners and policymakers.
This book examines to what extent the right of self-defence, as laid down in Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, permits States to launch military operations against other States. In ...particular, it focuses on the occurrence of an 'armed attack' - the crucial trigger for the activation of this right. In light of the developments since 9/11, the author analyses relevant physical and verbal customary practice, ranging from the 1974 Definition of Aggression to recent incidents such as the 2001 US intervention in Afghanistan and the 2006 Israeli intervention in Lebanon. The notion of 'armed attack' is examined from a threefold perspective. What acts can be regarded as an 'armed attack'? When can an 'armed attack' be considered to take place? And from whom must an 'armed attack' emanate? By way of conclusion, the different findings are brought together in a draft 'Definition of Armed Attack'.
► Descriptive overview of recent trends in defense-related R&D spending in United States, United Kingdom, and France. ► Discussion of the channels through which defense-related R&D has produced ...civilian technology “spinoffs” in the United States. ► Discussion of the limitations of defense mission-oriented R&D programs as models for contemporary mission-oriented R&D programs that seek to address societal “Grand Challenges”.
National defense represents a significant share of most OECD governments’ R&D budgets and an even higher share of their mission-oriented R&D spending. This public R&D investment has focused on research and innovation supporting defense missions, and in many cases the military services of these governments have purchased weapons systems incorporating the resulting technologies. Defense-related R&D investment has influenced innovation in the broader civilian economy of several OECD nations, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. The scope and nature of this influence remains uncertain and subject to considerable debate. Nonetheless, policymakers throughout the industrialized economies have expressed interest in “applying the lessons” of defense-related and other mission-oriented R&D programs to such challenges as climate change. This paper examines the characteristics of defense-related mission R&D programs in the industrial economies, with particular attention to the subset of nations for which reliable longitudinal data on defense R&D spending are available. I highlight the characteristics that distinguish mission-oriented R&D in this field from mission-oriented R&D in other sectors and to point out some significant differences among OECD economies in the structure of their defense-related R&D programs. The discussion also emphasizes the ways in which the unique structure of defense-related R&D limit its utility as a model for mission-oriented R&D programs aimed at other goals.
Buying Defence and Security in Europe is the first critical evaluation of the EU Defence and Security Procurement Directive 2009/81/EC, which is now the basis for public and private entities buying ...armaments and sensitive goods and services in the EU. This instrument aims to ensure non-discrimination, competition and transparency in the security sectors. Part one provides a critical analysis of the economical, historical, political, military-strategic and legal contexts of the new EU Defence and Security Procurement Directive. Part two covers the main aspects of the Directive: its scope, procedures, security of supply and information, offsets and subcontracting, and finally its review and remedies system. This book is an essential overview of a legislative milestone in the field.
Plant defence often varies by orders of magnitude as plants develop from the seedling to juvenile to mature and senescent stages. Ontogenetic trajectories can involve switches among defence traits, ...leading to complex shifting phenotypes across plant lifetimes. While considerable research has characterised ontogenetic trajectories for now hundreds of plant species, we still lack a clear understanding of the molecular, ecological and evolutionary factors driving these patterns. In this study, we identify several non‐mutually exclusive factors that may have led to the evolution of ontogenetic trajectories in plant defence, including developmental constraints, resource allocation costs, multi‐functionality of defence traits, and herbivore selection pressure. Evidence from recent physiological studies is highlighted to shed light on the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation and activation of these developmental changes. Overall, our goal is to promote new research avenues that would provide evidence for the factors that have promoted the evolution of this complex lifetime phenotype. Future research focusing on the questions and approaches identified here will advance the field and shed light on why defence traits shift so dramatically across plant ontogeny, a widespread but poorly understood ecological pattern.
1. In this essay I summarize current trends in the evolutionary ecology of plant defence, while advocating for approaches that integrate community ecology with specific tests of classic evolutionary ...hypotheses. Several conclusions emerge. 2. The microevolution of defence is perhaps best studied by reciprocal transplant experiments of differentiated plant populations while simultaneously manipulating the presence of the herbivore(s) hypothesized to be the agent(s) of natural selection. 3. Although there is continued interest in the costs of defence, I argue that some empirical approaches to estimating costs (e.g. genetic engineering) may provide limited insight into evolutionary processes. 4. Essentially all plants employ several different lines of defence against herbivory. It is thus time to abandon searching for single silver bullet traits and the simple trade-off model (where traits are arbitrarily expected to negatively covary across genotypes or species). We still know very little about which trait combinations are most effective and have repeatedly evolved together. Thus, some of our prominent theories (e.g. a predicted trade-off between direct and indirect defence) need to be revised. 5. Studies of the macroevolution of plant defence are enjoying renewed interest due to available phylogenies and analytical methods. Although general trends are not currently surmisable, we will soon have strong case studies evaluating both biotic and abiotic drivers of convergent evolution in defence strategies and the role of defence evolution in the adaptive radiation of plant lineages. 6. The evolution of specificity is proposed as a final frontier in understanding complexity in plant-herbivore interactions. Although it is abundantly clear that plants can deploy highly specific defensive responses that are differentially perceived by herbivore species, how such responses evolve and are physiologically regulated remains an important gap. Relatively straightforward methodologies are now available to close the loop between plant perception of herbivory, hormonal responses, and production of defensive end-products across genotype or species.
The European Union defence sector is not only crucial for the EU's security, but it is also a major industrial asset for EU member states, as it may foster innovation and greater integration among ...member states, as well as facilitate technology transfer. The understanding of and inferences about the sector, however, are laborious since data on the defence industry in Europe is often contradictory and confused and it is mostly compared at the national not at the European level. As a contribution to address such shortcomings and as opening piece for this Special Issue, this article focuses on the finding, collecting, cleaning, and organizing data on the geographical concentration/location of EU defence industries. This is a fully original descriptive analysis of the current situation, and it provides a reliable basis on the concentration/location of defence companies. This paper represents a firm basis from which to explore (in future research) how defence companies contribute to the technological integration of the EU and it should help the reader to better understand the following articles in this Special Issue.
The world is in a second nuclear age in which regional powers play an increasingly prominent role. These states have small nuclear arsenals, often face multiple active conflicts, and sometimes have ...weak institutions. How do these nuclear states-and potential future ones-manage their nuclear forces and influence international conflict? Examining the reasoning and deterrence consequences of regional power nuclear strategies, this book demonstrates that these strategies matter greatly to international stability and it provides new insights into conflict dynamics across important areas of the world such as the Middle East, East Asia, and South Asia.
Vipin Narang identifies the diversity of regional power nuclear strategies and describes in detail the posture each regional power has adopted over time. Developing a theory for the sources of regional power nuclear strategies, he offers the first systematic explanation of why states choose the postures they do and under what conditions they might shift strategies. Narang then analyzes the effects of these choices on a state's ability to deter conflict. Using both quantitative and qualitative analysis, he shows that, contrary to a bedrock article of faith in the canon of nuclear deterrence, the acquisition of nuclear weapons does not produce a uniform deterrent effect against opponents. Rather, some postures deter conflict more successfully than others.
Nuclear Strategy in the Modern Eraconsiders the range of nuclear choices made by regional powers and the critical challenges they pose to modern international security.
Plants allocate defences in order to decrease costs and maximize benefits against herbivores. The Optimal Defense Theory (ODT) predicts that continuously expressed (i.e. constitutive) defences are ...expected in structures of high value, whereas defences that are expressed or that increase their expression only after damage or upon risk of damage (i.e. induced defences) are expected in structures of low value. Although there are several studies evaluating ODT predictions, few studies have successfully tested them as a way of measuring ecological investment in extrafloral nectary (EFN)‐mediated ant–plant interactions.
Here we compared extrafloral nectar production and ant attractiveness to EFNs located on vegetative versus reproductive plant structures on Qualea multiflora plants subjected to different levels of simulated herbivory. We then addressed the following predictions emerging from the ODT: (a) extrafloral nectar produced in inflorescence EFNs will have higher volumes and calories and will attract more ants than extrafloral nectar produced in leaf EFNs; (b) extrafloral nectar production (volume and calories) and ant attendance will increase after simulated herbivory in leaf EFNs but not in inflorescence EFNs; (c) higher simulated leaf herbivory will induce higher extrafloral nectar production in EFNs on leaves and (d) more attractive extrafloral nectar (higher volume and calories) will attract more ants.
Extrafloral nectar volume and calorie content, as well as ant abundance, were higher in EFNs of inflorescences compared to EFNs of leaves both before and after simulated herbivory, consistent with one of our predictions. However, EFNs on both leaves and inflorescences, not on leaves only, were induced by simulated herbivory, a pattern opposite to our prediction. Plants subjected to higher levels of leaf damage produced more and higher calorie extrafloral nectar, but showed similar ant abundance. Finally, more attractive extrafloral nectar attracted more ants.
Synthesis. Our results show that extrafloral nectar production before and after simulated herbivory, as well as ant recruitment, varies according to the plant structure on which EFNs are located. Our study is the first to show that ant recruitment via extrafloral nectar follows predictions from Optimal Defense Theory, and that the ant foraging patterns may be shaped by the plant part attacked and the level of damage it receives.
Resumo
Plantas alocam defesas de maneira a reduzir custos e maximizar benefícios contra herbívoros. A Teoria da Defesa Ótima (TDO) prevê que as defesas expressas continuamente (ou seja, constitutivas) são alocadas em estruturas de alto valor, enquanto que as defesas expressas ou que aumentam sua expressão somente após dano ou sob risco de dano (defesa induzida) são alocadas em estruturas de baixo valor. Embora existam vários estudos avaliando as previsões da TDO, poucos estudos as testaram com sucesso como uma forma de medir o investimento ecológico nas interações formiga‐planta mediadas por nectários extraflorais (NEFs).
Nesse estudo, nós comparamos a produção de néctar extrafloral e a atratividade das formigas aos NEFs localizados nas estruturas vegetativas versus reprodutivas de Qualea multiflora submetidas a diferentes níveis de simulação de herbivoria. Para isso, nós delineamos as seguintes previsões emergentes da TDO: (i) o néctar extrafloral produzido nos NEFs de inflorescências terá maiores valores de volume e caloria e atrairá mais formigas do que o néctar extrafloral produzido nos NEFs foliares; (ii) a produção de néctar extrafloral (volume e calorias) e a abundância de formigas aumentarão após simulação de herbivoria nos NEFs foliares, mas não nos NEFs de inflorescências; (iii) maiores porcentagens de simulação de herbivoria nas folhas induzirá uma maior produção de néctar extrafloral nos NEFs foliares; e (iv) néctar extrafloral mais atraente (maior valores de volume e calorias) atrairá mais formigas.
O volume de néctar extrafloral e o conteúdo calórico, bem como a abundância de formigas, foram maiores nos NEFs das inflorescências em comparação com os NEFs foliares antes e após a simulação de herbivoria, consistente com uma de nossas previsões. Entretanto, ambos os NEFs foliares e os NEFs de inflorescências, não apenas os das folhas, foram induzidos por simulação de herbivoria, um padrão oposto ao previsto. Plantas submetidas a níveis mais altos de danos nas folhas produziram mais néctar extrafloral e com mais calorias, mas apresentaram abundância similar de formigas. Finalmente, o néctar extrafloral mais atraente atraiu mais formigas.
Síntese. Nossos resultados mostram que a produção de néctar extrafloral antes e depois da simulação de herbivoria, bem como o recrutamento de formigas, varia de acordo com a estrutura da planta na qual os NEFs estão localizados. Nosso estudo é o primeiro a mostrar que o recrutamento de formigas por néctar extrafloral segue as previsões da Teoria da Defesa Ótima e que os padrões de forrageamento das formigas podem ser moldados pela parte da planta atacada e pelo nível de dano recebido.
Our results show that extrafloral nectar production before and after simulated herbivory, as well as ant recruitment, varies according to the plant structure on which EFNs are located. Our study is the first to show that ant recruitment via extrafloral nectar follows predictions from Optimal Defense Theory, and that the ant foraging patterns may be shaped by the plant part attacked and the level of damage it receives.
PDF
