Summary In genetic case-control association studies, a standard practice is to perform the Cochran-Armitage (CA) trend test with 1 degree-of-freedom (d.f.) under the assumption of an additive model. ...However, when the true genetic model is recessive or near recessive, it is outperformed by Pearson's χ2 test with 2 d.f. In this article, we analytically reveal the statistical basis that leads to the phenomenon. First, we show that the CA trend test examines the location shift between the case and control groups, whereas Pearson's χ2 test examines both the location and dispersion shifts between the two groups. Second, we show that under the additive model, the effect of location deviation outweighs that of the dispersion deviation and vice versa under a near recessive model. Therefore, Pearson's χ2 test is a more robust test than the CA trend test, and it outperforms the latter when the mode of inheritance evolves to the recessive end.
What did citizenship really mean in classical Athens? It is conventionally understood as characterised by holding political office. Since only men could do so, only they were considered to be ...citizens, and the community (polis) has appeared primarily as the scene of men's political actions. However, Athenian law defined citizens not by political office, but by descent. Religion was central to the polis and in this domain, women played prominent public roles. Both men and women were called 'citizens'. On a new reading of the evidence, Josine Blok argues that for the Athenians, their polis was founded on an enduring bond with the gods. Laws anchored the polis' commitments to humans and gods in this bond, transmitted over time to male and female Athenians as equal heirs. All public offices, in various ways and as befitting gender and age, served both the human community and the divine powers protecting Athens.
The Genome Factor Conley, Dalton; Fletcher, Jason
2017, 2017., 20170109, 2017-01-09
eBook
For a century, social scientists have avoided genetics like the plague. But the nature-nurture wars are over. In the past decade, a small but intrepid group of economists, political scientists, and ...sociologists have harnessed the genomics revolution to paint a more complete picture of human social life than ever before.The Genome Factordescribes the latest astonishing discoveries being made at the scientific frontier where genomics and the social sciences intersect.
The Genome Factorreveals that there are real genetic differences by racial ancestry-but ones that don't conform to what we call black, white, or Latino. Genes explain a significant share of who gets ahead in society and who does not, but instead of giving rise to a genotocracy, genes often act as engines of mobility that counter social disadvantage. An increasing number of us are marrying partners with similar education levels as ourselves, but genetically speaking, humans are mixing it up more than ever before with respect to mating and reproduction. These are just a few of the many findings presented in this illuminating and entertaining book, which also tackles controversial topics such as genetically personalized education and the future of reproduction in a world where more and more of us are taking advantage of cheap genotyping services like 23andMe to find out what our genes may hold in store for ourselves and our children.
The Genome Factorshows how genomics is transforming the social sciences-and how social scientists are integrating both nature and nurture into a unified, comprehensive understanding of human behavior at both the individual and society-wide levels.
•Bone mineralization is an essential process of life.•ALP is highly expressed in the cells of mineralized tissue.•TNAP hydrolyzes pyrophosphate and supplies inorganic phosphate.
Alkaline phosphatase ...(ALP) is highly expressed in the cells of mineralized tissue and plays a critical function in the formation of hard tissue. The existing status of this critical enzyme should be reviewed periodically. ALP increases inorganic phosphate local rates and facilitates mineralization as well as reduces the extracellular pyrophosphate concentration, an inhibitor of mineral formation. Mineralization is the production, inside matrix vesicles, of hydroxyapatite crystals that bud from the outermembrane of hypertrophic osteoblasts and chondrocytes. The expansion of hydroxyapatite formsinto the extracellular matrix and its accumulation between collagen fibrils is observed. Among various isoforms, the tissue-nonspecific isozyme of ALP (TNAP) is strongly expressed in bone, liver and kidney and plays a key function in the calcification of bones. TNAP hydrolyzes pyrophosphate and supplies inorganic phosphate to enhance mineralization. The biochemical substrates of TNAP are believed to be inorganic pyrophosphate and pyridoxal phosphate. These substrates concentrate in TNAP deficient condition which results in hypophosphatasia. The increased level of ALP expression and development in this environment would undoubtedly provide new and essential information about the fundamental molecular mechanisms of bone formation, offer therapeutic possibilities for the management of bone-related diseases.
Inheritance of genomic DNA underlies the vast majority of biological inheritance, yet it has been clear for decades that additional epigenetic information can be passed on to future generations. ...Here, we review major model systems for transgenerational epigenetic inheritance via the germline in multicellular organisms. In addition to surveying examples of epivariation that may arise stochastically or in response to unknown stimuli, we also discuss the induction of heritable epigenetic changes by genetic or environmental perturbations. Mechanistically, we discuss the increasingly well-understood molecular pathways responsible for epigenetic inheritance, with a focus on the unusual features of the germline epigenome.
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