Groundwater is the dominant source of water supply in Kabul city in Afghanistan, but water levels in the region are steadily declining. This study was undertaken to assess groundwater level trends ...and examine its drought dynamics in Kabul city. The observation wells were classified using cluster analysis to categorize long-term trends of groundwater water level data. The seasonal and annual variations in groundwater depth have been determined utilizing the Mann–Kendall statistical test. To measure groundwater drought, the Standardized Groundwater Level Index (SGI) was utilized. Based on trend analysis, the water levels in 82% of the observation wells were significantly decreasing. From 2014 to 2020, most of the wells in the study area suffered increasingly severe and persistent drought, as per the SGI results. The analysis of land use and land cover (LULC) indicates that the built-up area is increased from about 15% in 2005 to 32% in 2020 in the study area. Bare land had decreased from about 67% in 2005 to 52% in 2020. The severe decline in groundwater level can be attributed to changes in LULC, overexploitation of groundwater, and declining annual precipitation. The findings of this study indicate that long-term groundwater management measures are required in the city area to maintain groundwater availability.
The capital city of Afghanistan, Kabul, has experienced rapid urbanization since the end of 2001. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of rapid urbanization on the Kabul aquifer system, ...which is the main source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use in the area. Satellite imagery, groundwater levels and rainfall historical data were analyzed in conjunction with physico-chemical parameters that were measured at 27 water wells located in the Kabul Plain in 2020. Land-cover maps indicate that the urban surface area increased by 40% between 2000 and 2020, whilst the agricultural surface area simultaneously decreased by 32%. Meanwhile the Kabul Plain has globally experienced a severe decrease in groundwater levels (-0.8 m/year on average, and a fall of 60 m in some places) due to overabstraction, which has also seen changes in groundwater flow directions. Hydrochemistry, on the other hand, reveals that chloride concentrations and salinity increased throughout the aquifer between 2005 and 2020, while the nitrate concentration decreased in most places of the Kabul Plain over the considered period. The results suggest that rapid urbanization has had serious detrimental effects on both groundwater quantity and quality. Without urgent preventive policy and the implementation of effective practices, groundwater resource depletion and groundwater quality deterioration in the Kabul shallow aquifers are likely to continue in the future.
•The GRACE’s performance was evaluated in two different agro-ecological zones.•The trend of groundwater abstraction was analyzed from 2002 to 2017.•The correlation of GRACE with in-situ measurements ...was better at plain regions.
The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) has recently been identified as a useful tool for monitoring changes in groundwater storage (GWS), especially in areas with sparse groundwater monitoring networks. However, GRACE's performance has not been evaluated in the highly heterogeneous Indus Basin (IB) to date. The objective of this study was thus (i) to evaluate GRACE's performance in two distinctively different agro-ecological zones of the IB, and (ii) to quantify the trend of groundwater abstraction over 15 years (i.e., from 2002 to 2017). To capture this heterogeneity at the IB, the two different agro-ecological zones were selected: i) the Kabul River Basin (KRB), Afghanistan, and ii) the Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) command area in Pakistan. The groundwater storage anomalies (GWSA) for both regions were extracted from random pixels. The results show a correlation (R2) of 0.46 for LBDC and 0.32 for the KRB, between the GWSA and in-situ measurements. The results further reveal a mean annual depletion in GWSA of −304.2 ± 749 and −301 ± 527 mm at the LBDC and the KRB, respectively. Overall, a net GWS depletion during 2002–2017 at the LBDC and KRB was 4.87 and 4.82 m, respectively. The GWSA’s response to precipitation analyzed through cross-correlation shows a lag of 4 and 3 months at the KRB and the LBDC, respectively. The GWSA's poor correlation with the in-situ measurements particularly in the mountainous region of the KRB is driven by the 4 months lag time unlike in the LBDC (i.e. 3 months); besides, the observations wells are sparse and limited. The complex geomorphology and slope of the landscape also cause discrepancies in the correlation of the in-situ measurements and the GRACE-derived changes in GWS at the two different agroecological zones of the IB. The spatially averaged GWSA in monthly time steps is another reason for the lower correlation between GRACE-based GWSA estimates and point-based in-situ measurements. Therefore, care must be taken while using GRACE's output in regions with heterogeneous geomorphologic features.
How and why did students at Kabul University engage in political activism or refrained from it between 1964 and 1992? Based on oral history interviews with former students, this book reveals how they ...– as many others around the world at the same time – were galvanized by and disappointed with promises of progress dominating local and international politics. During the 1960s, the international influences on campus encouraged students’ engagement with competing political ideologies. Collective student protest against the monarchy turned into hostilities between opposing political groups within the student body claiming to lead Afghanistan towards independence and prosperity. After the coup d’état by the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) in 1978, none of the ideologies which had previously incited students provided hope for a better future anymore. Many students who had fought for the PDPA earlier were repelled by the government’s violence and those who stood up against the regime were persecuted and fled the country. Overall, the dynamics of political activism at Kabul University reflect the deep intertwinement of the Global Cold War and local struggles for inclusion and independence. ; How and why did students at Kabul University engage in political activism or refrained from it between 1964 and 1992? Based on oral history interviews with former students, this book reveals how they – as many others around the world at the same time – were galvanized by and disappointed with promises of progress dominating local and international politics. During the 1960s, the international influences on campus encouraged students’ engagement with competing political ideologies. Collective student protest against the monarchy turned into hostilities between opposing political groups within the student body claiming to lead Afghanistan towards independence and prosperity. After the coup d’état by the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) in 1978, none of the ideologies which had previously incited students provided hope for a better future anymore. Many students who had fought for the PDPA earlier were repelled by the government’s violence and those who stood up against the regime were persecuted and fled the country. Overall, the dynamics of political activism at Kabul University reflect the deep intertwinement of the Global Cold War and local struggles for inclusion and independence.
Groundwater is an integral part of water resources. Groundwater has a vital role in water use in Kabul, Afghanistan. Nowadays, it is the only available source for water supply in Kabul city. The ...study aimed to comprehensively review the spatiotemporal groundwater distribution, physicochemical and bacteriological specifications of groundwater, and its consumption in Kabul, Afghanistan. Based on developed specific search terms to locate appropriate literature, the cited material is evaluated for relevance and reliability. Due to several causes, the mean annual decrease in groundwater levels between 2008 and 2016 is 1.7 m. About 33% of supply wells are not in operation due to declining groundwater tables. According to most reports, the physicochemical and bacteriological contents of groundwater in Kabul city exceeds World Health Organization (WHO) and National Drinking Water Quality Standard (NDWQS) limits. Individuals use water through four significant suppliers: Private wells, private suppliers, public water supply, and public wells. The study provides further insight into groundwater's current condition, and some recommendations are also presented to improve the sustainable development of groundwater.
The Kabul urban aquifer (Afghanistan), which is the main source of drinking water for Kabul city's inhabitants, is highly vulnerable to anthropogenic pollution. In this study, the geochemistry of ...major ions (including reactive nitrogen species such as NO3−, NO2ˉ, and NH4+) and stable isotope ratios (δ15N-NO3−, δ18O-NO3−, δ18O-H2O, and δ2H-H2O) of surface and groundwater samples from the Kabul Plain were analyzed over two sampling periods (dry and wet seasons). A Bayesian stable isotope mixing model (BSIMM) was also employed to trace potential nitrate sources, transformation processes, and proportional contributions of nitrate sources in the Kabul aquifer. The plotting of δ15N-NO3− against δ18O-NO3̄ (δ15N-NO3− and δ18O-NO3− values ranged from +4.8 to +25.4‰ and from −11.7 to +18.6‰, respectively) suggests that NO3− primarily originated from the nitrification of sewage rather than artificial fertilizer. The plotting of δ15N-NO3− versus NO3−/Cl− ratios also supported the assumption that sewage is the dominant nitrate source. The results indicate that denitrification did not influence the NO3− isotopic composition in the Kabul aquifer. The BSIMM model suggests that nitrate in the dry season originated mainly from sewage (~81%), followed by soil organic N (10.5%), and chemical fertilizer (8.5%). In the wet season, sewage (~87.5%), soil organic N (6.7%), and chemical fertilizer (5.8%) were the main sources of NO3− in the Kabul aquifer. Effective land management measures should be taken to improve the sewage collection system in the Kabul Plain.
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•Kabul urban aquifer is highly vulnerable to anthropogenic pollution.•A multi-parameter approach was used to track NO3− sources in the Kabul aquifer.•Nitrate isotopes indicate that sewage was the main source of groundwater NO3−.•Nitrification was the main NO3− process, while denitrification was negligible.•Bayesian stable isotope mixing model agree on highest NO3− contribution by sewage.
Abstract Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne zoonotic disease with high morbidity and case fatality rates (CFR) in humans, especially among the high-risk groups, including ...butchers. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted in Kabul City to determine the knowledge gaps and risky behaviors of Kabul City’s butchers about CCHF. Data were collected from 123 butchers by structured interview using a pre-designed questionnaire. The finding of the present study revealed that of the total CCHF cases in the butchers, their family members, and co-workers, 37.9% died. Nearly half of the butchers (45.0%) experienced splashing of animal blood on their faces, while 70.1% of them had cut their hands with a knife during their occupation life. In addition, 27.0% of the respondents held the knife in their mouth while dressing the animal carcasses, and 27.3% of the butchers consumed raw liver. Hand washing and PPE application were practiced by 94.3% and 22.8% of the respondents, respectively. About 92% of the respondents had heard about CCHF, and 67.4% of the participants had good knowledge about CCHF. The knowledge level of the respondents (poor or good) was statistically related to their age, history of blood splash in the face and eyes of the butchers, holding work knives in the mouth, blowing the skin of animals, hand washing with soap and water, and slaughter places ( p < 0.05). A medium correlation between education and total knowledge of the butchers was observed (r = 0.3; p < 0.05). It is necessary to change such high-risk behaviors by continually coordinating awareness campaigns through mass media, workshops, and informative leaflet distribution to improve knowledge. One Health impact statement CCHF is a multifaceted zoonotic disease where tick bites, direct contact with the tissue, secretions, and body fluids of the infected animals and humans, and consumption of raw milk, meat, and liver of infected animals are the main transmission methods of the disease to humans. Although livestock including cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and ostrich are the main reservoirs of the virus, they are infected in subclinical form, and humans are the only hosts where fatal clinical disease develops. Since the CCHF virus circulates in nature between tick-vertebrates-ticks, the only method that can effectively control and prevent the disease in humans is by using a targeted One Health approach between the human, veterinary, and environmental health sectors. Meanwhile, it has been proven that public awareness campaigns through the use of mass media, community leaders, and integrated workshops are the most effective tools to prevent the transmission of the CCHF virus from infected animals and ticks to humans.
•Rising future flows of Jhelum, Kabul, Upper Indus Basin under Paris Agreement targets.•Strengthening of nival and glacial regimes of Himalayan basins under 1.5 °C target.•Changes under 2.0 °C Paris ...Agreement target are stark, relative to 1.5 °C.•Overall, 34% and 43% rise in flows for 1.5° and 2.0° under no change in glacier area.
Highly seasonal water supplies from the Himalayan watersheds of Jhelum, Kabul and upper Indus basin (UIB) are critical for managing the world's largest contiguous irrigation system of the Indus basin and its dependent agrarian economy of Pakistan. Here, we assess changes in the contrasting hydrological regimes of these Himalayan watersheds, and subsequent water availability under the Paris Agreement 2015 targets that aim of limiting the mean global warming to 1.5 °C (Plus1.5), and further, well below 2.0 °C (Plus2.0) relative to pre-industrial level. For this, calibrated semi-distributed hydrological model setups of the University of British Columbia are coupled with the 80-member ensemble experiments of Plus1.5 and Plus2.0 performed under the half a degree additional warming, projections, prognosis and impacts (HAPPI) framework. Our results suggest that during October to February, HAPPI ensembles project a median warming of up to 1 °C under Plus1.5 and of more than 1.5ºC under Plus2.0 relative to the historical period (2006–2015). Such warming is generally higher in daily minimum than daily maximum temperature and over high altitudes. Both scenarios project drying of the monsoon (July–September) and the main snowpack accumulation/melt seasons (March-June). Results of hydrological modeling suggest significant changes in the timings of contrasting hydrological regimes that collectively reflect on changes in the overall hydrology of the Himalayan watersheds. Median changes generally indicate strengthening of the nival and glacial regimes for all basins under Plus1.5, except for the nival regime of the Jhelum basin, whereas such changes are more pronounced under Plus2.0. Subsequently, annual water availability from three Himalayan watersheds will increase by 34% and 43% under Plus1.5 and Plus2.0, respectively. These findings provide an overall picture of the surface water availability in Pakistan under the aspirations of the Paris Agreement 2015 and can inform on policy decisions together with the country's first-ever national water policy approved recently.
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