Bell inequalities rest on three fundamental assumptions: realism, locality, and free choice, which lead to nontrivial constraints on correlations in very simple experiments. If we retain realism, ...then violation of the inequalities implies that at least one of the remaining two assumptions must fail, which can have profound consequences for the causal explanation of the experiment. We investigate the extent to which a given assumption needs to be relaxed for the other to hold at all costs, based on the observation that a violation need not occur on every experimental trial, even when describing correlations violating Bell inequalities. How often this needs to be the case determines the degree of, respectively, locality or free choice in the observed experimental behavior. Despite their disparate character, we show that both assumptions are equally costly. Namely, the resources required to explain the experimental statistics (measured by the frequency of causal interventions of either sort) are exactly the same. Furthermore, we compute such defined measures of locality and free choice for any nonsignaling statistics in a Bell experiment with binary settings, showing that it is directly related to the amount of violation of the so-called Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt inequalities. This result is theory independent as it refers directly to the experimental statistics. Additionally, we show how the local fraction results for quantum-mechanical frameworks with infinite number of settings translate into analogous statements for the measure of free choice we introduce. Thus, concerning statistics, causal explanations resorting to either locality or free choice violations are fully interchangeable.
This collection of essays brings together contributions from judges, legal scholars and practitioners in order to provide a comprehensive assessment of the law and practice of exceptions from the ...principle of free movement. It aims:
to conceptualise how justification arguments relating to exceptions to free movement operate in the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union and national courts;to develop a comprehensive and original account of empirical problems on the application of proportionality;to explore the legal and policy issues which shape the interactions between the EU and national authorities, including national courts, in the context of the efforts made by Member States to protect national differences. The book analyses economic, social, cultural, political, environmental and consumer protection justifications. These are examined in the light of the rebalancing of the EU constitutional order introduced by the Lisbon Treaty and the implications of the financial crisis in the Union. Volume 66 in the Series Modern Studies in European Law
Limited availability of forage may be the main factor related to the development and prevalence of abnormal and stereotypic behaviors in horses. Offering forage ad libitum could be the best option ...regarding horses’ welfare, but is associated with increases in body weight (BW), BCS, waste of hay and obesity. Devices such as hay-nets/bags, box- and slow-feeders have been developed to decrease food waste, but there is little knowledge on how they can affect the horses' time-budget (TB). TB is the daily amount of time an animal engages in all behavioral activities. Differences in the TB of domesticated horses compared with feral conspecifics in their natural environment can be used to reveal welfare impairment. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of feeding free choice hay (FC), to a slow feeder (SF) and an automated box feeder (BF) on equine behavior by 24-h continuous sampling (CS). The study was designed as a 3 × 3 latin square design with 15 mixed Thoroughbred polo horses (14.9 ± 4.1 years) divided into 3 social groups of 5 horses (cohabited pens for previous 6 mo) randomly assigned to one of the treatments for 15 d. Horses were hept in dry lots, had access to water, salt and mineral blocks. BW and BCS were assessed biweekly. The animals’ behavior was recorded during the last 24 h of the last day of each treatment period and the video analyzed with CS. The time spent in stereotypic,abnormal behaviors and other activities was evaluated second-by-second, averaged in minutes, and used for the determination of the animals’ TB. The effects of the different feeders were analyzed in ANOVA in a mixed model with repeated measures. Horses in FC consumed and wasted more hay (16.6 ± 0.5kg/horse/day) (P < 0.001), compared with BF (10.4 ± 0.5 kg/horse/day), and SF (9.30 ± 0.45 kg/horse day), where BF and SF had similar intake and less waste. Horses on FC had the highest weight gain (P < 0.001, 23.5 ± 4.6kg), whereas BF gained 1.2 ± 5.7 kg and SF 0.37 ± 4.6 kg (P = 0.092). Horses in FC spent 744 ± 26 min, and SF 791.16 ± 27 min (P = 0.21), meaning more than 50% of the TB foraging, generating a time distribution similar to grazing horses. Horses on BF treatment spent the lowest time eating (P < 0.001), 371.6 ± 32.3 min, or 25.81% of their TB, increasing (P < 0.050) the time spent in other activities (standing attentive, sniffing the ground, and practicing coprophagy). The level of aggression between conspecifics became higher as the feed became less accessible, with horses in BF showing highest levels of aggression(P < 0.043). Slow feeders are a good option to mimic natural TB.
► Tourist learning is highly personal. ► Tourist learning emerges over space & time. ► Tourist learning influenced by identity-related needs and expectations.
This conceptual paper explores the nexus ...between travel and learning; an area of investigation long neglected by tourism researchers. Using Aristotle’s concepts of phronesis, techne and episteme a framework for the major areas of literature dealing with touristic learning are considered and opportunities and challenges for expanding the boundaries of knowledge are explored. Key proposals are: learning resulting from tourist experiences is likely to be highly personal and strongly tied to individual interests, motivations and prior knowledge; the nature of learning from a tourist experience only emerges over space and time; and long-term meanings created by tourists are likely to be strongly influenced by their perceptions of how these experiences satisfy identity-related needs and expectations.
This conceptual paper addresses gaps in transformative learning and tourism literature. We argue for a more complete integration of Transformative Learning Theory within tourism literature, in order ...to better understand tourism learning as both a process and a product. The Transformative Tourism Learning Model is proposed as a framework for understanding how to intentionally plan and design tourism learning experiences with specific learning processes and outcomes in mind. This paper offers a synthesis of transformative literature within tourism contexts and the proposes the Transformative Tourism Learning Model to provide researchers and practitioners with a guiding framework in both the design and analysis for tourism learning and behavior change.
•A clear definition of what the term “transformative tourism” means•Effective integration of Transformative Learning Theory into the tourism literature•Proposal of the Transformative Tourism Learning Model•Recommendations for next steps of research in transformative tourism research
Abstract
Neo-Darwinian biology has demonstrated that it is possible to construct a theory of life that excludes the role of organisms’ free choice. In a richer theory, the latter as a possibility ...needs to be taken into account. For that purpose, it is necessary to introduce the biological concept of choice, analyse its structure and roles, and consider some implications for biological theory. It is argued here that the conditions for free choice emerge together with umwelt—the space of synchronous options. Basically, choice does not require purpose. This leads to the conclusion that freedom is an attribute of life.
In this study, we use a mixed methods approach to analyze the conversational content and interactions constituting five family groups' visits to the Marine Aquarium of Rio de Janeiro (AquaRio), the ...largest marine aquarium in South America, to understand how families interact with science and construct meaning regarding science and conservation. The audiovisual records of the family groups were analyzed using categories that investigate the types of interactions and conversations that may take place in scientific‐cultural venues. The results suggest that, throughout the visits, family members were driven by their observation and contemplation of the animals on exhibit to interact with each other to share information about marine biodiversity and its conservation. The adults, children, and explainers all had fundamental roles in the construction of dialogues on scientific topics. The adults adopted behaviors that facilitated learning, made associations with previous experiences, read panels, and contextualized the information to their family's reality. The children were notable for their protagonism, asking questions, giving explanations, and sharing their previous knowledge, experiences and opinions about the animals and the conservation of marine biodiversity based on scientific reasoning. Therefore, this study provides evidence of the important role that AquaRio could play in providing opportunities for families to have conversations about biodiversity and conservation while raising awareness about the impacts of human activities on the oceans.
•Implicature consists in a series of sub-computations, but these can be computed online or stored.•Evidence from priming suggests the quantifier some and number words involve a shared ...computation.•The most likely candidate for this shared computation is the negation of alternatives.•Alternatives for number are lexically stored, but the alternatives for some are computed online.•Free Choice disjunctions do not show evidence for a shared computation with either some or number .
Across a wide variety of semantically ambiguous sentences, implicature has been proposed as a single mechanism which can derive one reading from another in a systematic way. While a single formal mechanism for computing implicatures across disparate cases has an appealing parsimony, differences in behavioral and processing signatures between cases have created a debate about whether the same computation really is so widely shared. Building on previous work by Bott and Chemla (2016), three experiments use structural priming to test for shared computations across three purported cases of implicature: the quantifier some, number words, and Free Choice disjunctions. While we find evidence of a shared computation between the enriched readings of some and number words, we find no evidence that Free Choice readings involve any shared computation with either some or number. Along with evidence of a shared mechanism between some and number implicatures, we also find substantial differences between these two cases. We propose a way to reconcile these findings, as well as seemingly contradictory prior evidence, by understanding implicature as a sequence of separable sub-computations. This implies a spectrum of possibilities for which sub-computations might be shared or distinct between cases, instead of a single implicature mechanism that can only be either present or absent.
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