Kur’an’ın Ahlâkî Tekâmül Yöntemi KESKİN, Hasan; YILMAZ, Muhammet
Trabzon ilahiyat dergisi (Online),
12/2023, Letnik:
10, Številka:
2
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Çalışmamız, Kur'an'ın ahlâkî tekâmül yöntemini detaylı bir şekilde ele alarak, Kur’an ahlâkının temel prensiplerini ve bu prensiplerin insana kazandırılmasında uyguladığı stratejiyi incelemektedir. ...Bu makale; fıtrattan uzaklaşarak zamanla yozlaşmış olan ahlâkî yapıyı, evrensel özelliğiyle yeniden güncelleyecek potansiyele sahip Kur’an’ın ahlâk algısı ve amacını ele almaktadır. Aynı zamanda Kur'an'ın ahlâkî tekâmül yöntemini analiz ederek, Kur’an ahlâkının insanın olgunlaşmasına olan etkilerini ayrıntılı bir şekilde ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Ayrıca, Kur'an'ın içerdiği ahlâkî prensiplerin, bireyin karakter gelişimine ve toplumsal ahlâkın sağlanmasına yönelik rolünü açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. Makalede, Kur'an'ın ahlâkî tekâmül metodolojisini anlamak ve analiz etmek maksadıyla literatür taraması, konuyla ilgili âyetlerin incelenmesi ve tefsir çalışmalarını içeren kapsamlı bir yöntem benimsenmiştir. Bu bağlamda, makale, Kur'an'ın ahlâkî tekâmül stratejisini sistematik bir şekilde ortaya koyarak insan davranışlarındaki ahlâki gelişimi açığa çıkaracak bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir. Bu süreçte Kur’an’ın, bireyleri hedeflediği ahlâkî olgunluğa kavuşturmak için uzun soluklu bir yol haritası çizerek adım adım ilerleme yöntemini uyguladığı gözlenmiştir. Kur’an’ın iyi ve kötüyü tanıtma, güdüleme, örnekleme gibi yöntemlerle tedrîcen bir değişim stratejisiyle toplumun tekâmülünü gerçekleştirme çabası ortaya koyduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu yöntemle ümitsizliğe kapılmama, bağışlanma, ahiret inancının toplumu motive etmesi ve güzel ahlâk kazandırma konularının etkili olarak kullandığı gözlenmiştir. Bu süreçte Kur’an’ın örnekleme sistemini tedrîcî bir yöntem kullanarak hedeflediği kâmil ahlâka ulaştıracak fikrî alt yapıya zemin hazırladığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu araştırmanın sonucunda, Kur’an’ın bireylerde meydana getirdiği değişimden hareketle sadece geçmişte değil her dönemde moral değerleri yükselen, ideal bir toplum oluşturmayı hedeflediği anlaşılmaktadır.
Our study examines the ethical development method of the Qur'an, analyzing the principles of Quranic ethics and the strategies it employs in instilling these principles in individuals. This article delves into the ethical purpose of the Qur'an to rejuvenate the deteriorated moral structure over time with its universal characteristics. Simultaneously, it aims to enlighten the impact of the Quranic ethical development method on human maturation by analyzing the ethical principles in the Quran. Furthermore, it aims to elucidate the role of these principles in individual character development and the establishment of societal ethics. The article adopts a methodology, including literature review, examination of relevant verses, and analysis of commentaries, to analyze the Qur'an's methodology. Thus the article presents the Quranic strategy, revealing an approach that unfolds the moral development in human behavior. Throughout this process, it observes the Quran's roadmap to guide individuals towards ethical maturity step-by-step. The study identifies that the Quran employs a gradual change strategy, introducing concepts of good and evil, motivation, and exemplification to achieve the societal development. It is noted that the Quran effectively utilizes methods such as dispelling despair, encouraging forgiveness, motivating through belief in the afterlife, and instilling good morals. The Quran is found to lay the conceptual groundwork with a gradual method leading to the desired virtuous ethics. In conclusion, based on the transformative impact it has on individuals, this research reveals that the Qur'an aspires to elevate moral values not only in the past but in every era, aiming to create an ideal society.
Abstract
Sanctions senders respond to the abrupt escalation of crises, such as the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 or the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. To react quickly, they often ...decide on coercive measures without a long-term exit strategy in mind. Similarly, research has long prioritized questions of sanctions onset and effectiveness, while studies on their termination remain scarce. In response, we reconstruct previously neglected debates about ending sanctions for the “watershed case” of the UN embargo against Iraq. Based on a conceptual framework that emphasizes a more process-oriented and signaling perspective on sanctions termination, we analyze archival data as well as governmental and UN documents. We find that the United States depicted the lifting of sanctions as an all-or-nothing question, which impeded a more gradual approach toward ending the measures. We show that senders significantly disagreed over the requirements for ending sanctions and over whether possibly signaling the end of Iraq’s isolation was politically desirable. In the second step, we then draw implications from the case of Iraq to study contemporary sanctions termination. We use novel data on the termination of all EU, UN, and US sanctions from 1990 to 2018 to explore whether the Iraq case inspired changes in senders’ approaches. We find that the use of review provisions and sunset clauses significantly increased post-Iraq. Finally, we discuss whether disagreements over termination requirements in the case of Russia risk the repetition of past pitfalls when it comes to the process of ending sanctions.
We add to the literature on long-term relationships with variable stakes and incomplete information by analyzing a discrete-time trust game between a principal and agent, with a continuum of types. ...In each period the principal selects the level of a project and the agent then decides whether to cooperate or betray; payoffs in the period scale with the level. The agent's benefit of betraying is privately known. The discrete-time framework allows for analysis of renegotiation in terms of an internal consistency condition that compares actual equilibria in the continuation of the game from any period, improving on the prior literature. Our condition assumes the principal has full power to alter the equilibrium selection. Our main result shows that the resulting perfect Bayesian equilibria converge as the period length shrinks to zero, and we provide a closed-form solution. In equilibrium, the relationship starts small and the level gradually rises until it reaches its maximum; cooperation is viable regardless of the type distribution.
The early Eocene of the southern Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, is notable for its nearly continuous record of mammalian fossils. Microsyopinae (?Primates) is one of several lineages that shows evidence of ...evolutionary change associated with an interval referred to as Biohorizon A.
is replaced by a larger species,
, during the biohorizon interval in what is likely an immigration/emigration or immigration/local extinction event. The latter is then superseded by
after the end of the Biohorizon A interval. Although this pattern has been understood for some time, denser sampling has led to the identification of a specimen intermediate in morphology between
and
, located stratigraphically as the latter is appearing. Because specimens of
have been recovered approximately 60 m above the appearance of
, it is clear that
did not suffer pseudoextinction. Instead, evidence suggests that
branched off from a population of
, but the latter species persisted. This represents possible evidence of cladogenesis, which has rarely been directly documented in the fossil record. The improved understanding of both evolutionary transitions with better sampling highlights the problem of interpreting gaps in the fossil record as punctuations.
Assessing the extent to which population subdivision during cladogenesis is necessary for long-term phenotypic evolution is of fundamental importance in a broad range of biological disciplines. ...Differentiating cladogenesis from anagenesis, defined as evolution within a species, has generally been hampered by dating precision, insufficient fossil data, and difficulties in establishing a direct link between morphological changes detectable in the fossil record and biological species. Here we quantify the relative frequencies of cladogenesis and anagenesis for macroperforate planktic Foraminifera, which arguably have the most complete fossil record currently available, to address this question. Analyzing this record in light of molecular evidence, while taking into account the precision of fossil dating techniques, we estimate that the fraction of speciation events attributable to anagenesis is <19% during the Cenozoic era (last 65 Myr) and <10% during the Neogene period (last 23 Myr). Our central conclusion—that cladogenesis is the predominant mode by which new planktic Foraminifera taxa become established at macroevolutionary time scales—differs markedly from the conclusion reached in a recent study based solely on fossil data. These disparate findings demonstrate that interpretations of macroevolutionary dynamics in the fossil record can be fundamentally altered in light of genetic evidence.
Significance Paleontologists have long argued about what the fossil record call tell us about how species evolve over long periods. Simple models such as stasis and random walks have been used to ...explore evolutionary patterns, but these have not always adequately captured the ways in which traits change over time in fossil species. Here we find that models with complex evolutionary dynamics are often favored, especially for fossil series that sample many populations, suggesting that the underlying evolutionary reality is likely more complex than represented by simplified—though still useful—models of trait change.
Previous analyses of evolutionary patterns, or modes, in fossil lineages have focused overwhelmingly on three simple models: stasis, random walks, and directional evolution. Here we use likelihood methods to fit an expanded set of evolutionary models to a large compilation of ancestor–descendant series of populations from the fossil record. In addition to the standard three models, we assess more complex models with punctuations and shifts from one evolutionary mode to another. As in previous studies, we find that stasis is common in the fossil record, as is a strict version of stasis that entails no real evolutionary changes. Incidence of directional evolution is relatively low (13%), but higher than in previous studies because our analytical approach can more sensitively detect noisy trends. Complex evolutionary models are often favored, overwhelmingly so for sequences comprising many samples. This finding is consistent with evolutionary dynamics that are, in reality, more complex than any of the models we consider. Furthermore, the timing of shifts in evolutionary dynamics varies among traits measured from the same series. Finally, we use our empirical collection of evolutionary sequences and a long and highly resolved proxy for global climate to inform simulations in which traits adaptively track temperature changes over time. When realistically calibrated, we find that this simple model can reproduce important aspects of our paleontological results. We conclude that observed paleontological patterns, including the prevalence of stasis, need not be inconsistent with adaptive evolution, even in the face of unstable physical environments.
The phylogeny and divergence timing of the Neoavian radiation remain controversial despite recent progress. We analyzed the genomes of 124 species across all Neoavian orders, using data from 25,460 ...loci spanning four DNA classes, including 5,756 coding sequences, 12,449 conserved nonexonic elements, 4,871 introns, and 2,384 intergenic segments. We conducted a comprehensive sensitivity analysis to account for the heterogeneity across different DNA classes, leading to an optimal tree of Neoaves with high resolution. This phylogeny features a novel Neoavian dichotomy comprising two monophyletic clades: a previously recognized Telluraves (land birds) and a newly circumscribed Aquaterraves (waterbirds and relatives). Molecular dating analyses with 20 fossil calibrations indicate that the diversification of modern birds began in the Late Cretaceous and underwent a constant and steady radiation across the KPg boundary, concurrent with the rise of angiosperms as well as other major Cenozoic animal groups including placental and multituberculate mammals. The KPg catastrophe had a limited impact on avian evolution compared to the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, which triggered a rapid diversification of seabirds. Our findings suggest that the evolution of modern birds followed a slow process of gradualism rather than a rapid process of punctuated equilibrium, with limited interruption by the KPg catastrophe. This study places bird evolution into a new context within vertebrates, with ramifications for the evolution of the Earth's biota.
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