Hydrogen storage systems (HSSs), are the backbone of feasible hydrogen economy. To provide a reliable renewable energy system, safe, cost effective and compact HSS is due. Physical storage systems ...involve the compressed gas, liquid and cryo-compressed techniques while material based one involves adsorptive materials, metal hydrides and chemical storage materials. In this paper, the features of a variety of HSSs are impartially discussed. The technical comparative analysis of the different physical and material based types of HSSs illustrates the paradoxical inherent features, including gravimetric and volumetric storage densities and parameters associated with storage and release processes, among these systems. Accordingly, no ideal hydrogen storage technique can be considered the best-fit for all stationary and automotive applications. Therefore, not only a unique HSS solution can properly provide the needs, but a set of complementary HSS solutions which may offer the system designer several options. This set of options can be hardly interpretable in case of the unclear definition of the application needs which may be time variant. Inside this review, the critical insights and recommendations about suitable applications for storage systems are provided. Different standards and codes alongside the corresponding tests are demonstrated for the different storage technologies. Moreover, storage vessels research work is overviewed for the different hydrogen storage technologies. In addition, the failure behaviour, criteria and prediction models are investigated for composite vessels subjected to high pressures and extreme temperatures degrading their mechanical behaviour and failure resistance.
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•Deep investigation of the different hydrogen storage technologies.•Comparing vessels for different hydrogen storage systems.•Research trends related to hydrogen storage systems.•Demonstration of the various codes and standards for hydrogen storage systems.
Over the past years, hydrogen has been identified as the most promising carrier of clean energy. In a world that aims to replace fossil fuels to mitigate greenhouse emissions and address other ...environmental concerns, hydrogen generation technologies have become a main player in the energy mix. Since hydrogen is the main working medium in fuel cells and hydrogen-based energy storage systems, integrating these systems with other renewable energy systems is becoming very feasible. For example, the coupling of wind or solar systems hydrogen fuel cells as secondary energy sources is proven to enhance grid stability and secure the reliable energy supply for all times. The current demand for clean energy is unprecedented, and it seems that hydrogen can meet such demand only when produced and stored in large quantities. This paper presents an overview of the main hydrogen production and storage technologies, along with their challenges. They are presented to help identify technologies that have sufficient potential for large-scale energy applications that rely on hydrogen. Producing hydrogen from water and fossil fuels and storing it in underground formations are the best large-scale production and storage technologies. However, the local conditions of a specific region play a key role in determining the most suited production and storage methods, and there might be a need to combine multiple strategies together to allow a significant large-scale production and storage of hydrogen.
•Large-scale production and storage of hydrogen are presented.•Renewable hydrogen is summarized.•Non-renewable hydrogen is discussed.•Natural underground hydrogen storage is presented.
Hydrogen storage technology is critical for hydrogen energy applications because it bridges the gap between hydrogen production and consumption. The AB5 hydrogen storage alloy, composed of rare earth ...elements, boasts favorable attributes such as facile activation, cost-effectiveness, minimal hysteresis, and rapid rates of hydrogen absorption and desorption. It assumes a pivotal role in hydrogen energy applications, notably in hydrogen fuel cells and storage technologies. However, the low effective hydrogen storage density (∼1.4 wt%) of this alloy limits its application in hydrogen storage. In this work, a series of AB5 La0.6MgxNi3.45Nd0.1 (x = 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4) alloys were developed by suction casting (SC) and conventional as-cast (AC) methods. The results showed that the La0.6Mg0.3Ni3.45Nd0.1 alloy prepared by the SC method has a hydrogen absorption capacity of 1.63 wt% and a hydrogen desorption capacity of 1.50 wt%, which are higher than the hydrogen storage capacities of the alloys prepared by the AC method. The cycling performance of the La0.6Mg0.3Ni3.45Nd0.1 AC alloy and SC alloy at 298 K was studied. The hydrogen capacity retention rate of La0.6Mg0.3Ni3.45Nd0.1 SC alloy after 300 cycles was 90.86%. Additionally, the structure of the alloys was characterized by XRD, SEM and EDS and the microstructural control and dehydrogenation mechanism of the developed alloys were systematically investigated.
•A rare earth-based hydrogen storage alloy was prepared by a novel vacuum suction casting method (SC alloy).•The La0.6Mg0.3Ni3.45Nd0.1 SC alloy has remarkable hydrogen absorption performance with the maximum of 1.63 wt %.•The capacity retention rate of the La0.6Mg0.3Ni3.45Nd0.1 SC alloy after 300 cycles reaches 90.86%.
Our extreme and growing energy consumption, based on fossil fuels, has significantly increased the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which may lead to global and irreversible climate ...changes. We have plenty of renewable energy, e.g., sun and wind, but the fluctuations over time and geography call for a range of new ideas and, possibly, novel technologies. The most difficult challenge appears to be the development of the efficient and reliable storage of renewable energy. Hydrogen has long been considered as a potential means of energy storage; however, storage of hydrogen is also challenging. Therefore, a wide range of hydrogen-containing materials, with energy-related functions, has been discovered over the past few decades. The chemistry of hydrogen is very diverse, and so also are the new hydrides that have been discovered, not only in terms of structure and composition but also in terms of their properties. This has led to a wide range of new possible applications of metal hydrides that permeate beyond solid-state hydrogen storage. A variety of new hydrides, proposed as battery materials, has been discovered. These can exploit properties as fast ion conductors or as conversion-type electrodes with much higher potential energy capacities, compared to materials currently used in commercial batteries. Solar heat storage is also an area of great potential for metal hydrides, in principle offering orders of magnitude better storage performance than phase change materials. Recently, hydrides with optical and superconducting properties have also been investigated. This Special Issue of Inorganics, entitled “Functional Materials Based on Metal Hydrides”, is dedicated to the full range of emerging electronic, photonic, and energy-related, inorganic, hydrogen-containing materials.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for hydrogen storage have continued to receive intense interest over the past decade. MOFs are a class of organic-inorganic hybrid crystalline materials consisting of ...metallic moieties that are linked by strong coordination bonds to organic ligands. They exhibit a great structural diversity and possess low weight, exceptionally high surface areas, large free volumes, and tunable pore sizes and functionalities, making them extremely attractive for a variety of applications such as hydrogen storage. For these reasons MOFs have been extensively studied. In this paper, a review of recent developments on hydrogen storage in MOFs is presented, with a focus on the effects of various factors including open metal sites, ‘guest’ metal ions, ligand functionalization, surface area, pore volume, pore size, and Pt or Pd metal nanoparticles, on hydrogen storage. In addition, the review examines the emerging research on MOF hybrid hydrogen storage systems, primarily in the context of employing MOFs for nanoconfinement of high temperature hydrogen storage materials. The review focuses on experimental studies.
Boron compounds have a rich history in energy storage applications, ranging from high energy fuels for advanced aircraft to hydrogen storage materials for fuel cell applications. In this review we ...cover some of the aspects of energy storage materials comprised of electron-poor boron materials combined with electron-rich nitrogen elements with the goal of moderate temperature release of hydrogen. The parent compounds of ammonium borohydride, ammonia borane, and diammoniate of diborane provide approaches for storing high gravimetric and volumetric densities of hydrogen. Here we provide a review with a historical perspective and current developments in the area of solid state B and N containing compounds. This review highlights developments in synthesis of ammonia borane and its derivatives over the last 80 years. Thermodynamics and kinetics of hydrogen release in the solid state are discussed. By changing either substituents on the boron and nitrogen atoms or the physical environment by embedding in mesoporous scaffolds, the thermodynamics can be modified to reduce the exothermicity of hydrogen release and minimize formation of volatile impurities. Several mechanistic studies are reviewed identifying the key distinctions between homopolar and heteropolar H
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release. Strategies for economical and efficient regeneration of the hydrogen storage materials
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chemical transformation are critically reviewed. The limited efficiency of these chemical regeneration has limited some of the potential applications.
Mechanistic studies of hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of boron and nitrogen containing compounds in the solid-state and its applications are reviewed.
Salt formations of an appropriate thickness and structure, common over the globe, are potential sites for leaching underground caverns in them for storage of various substances, including hydrogen. ...Underground hydrogen storage, considered as underground energy storage, requires, in first order, an assessment of the potential for underground storage of this gas at various scales: region, country, specific place.
The article presents the results of the assessment of the underground hydrogen storage potential for a sample bedded salt formation in SW Poland. Geological structural and thickness maps provided the basis for the development of hydrogen storage capacity maps and maps of energy value and heating value. A detailed assessment of the hydrogen storage capacity was presented for the selected area, for a single cavern and for the cavern field; a map of the energy value of stored hydrogen has also been presented. The hydrogen storage potential of the salt caverns was related to the demand for electricity and heat. The results show the huge potential for hydrogen storage in salt caverns.
•The assessment of hydrogen storage capacity for a salt cavern is presented.•Salt deposits have huge potential for hydrogen storage.•Maps of hydrogen storage capacity demonstrate potential for using salt formation.•Hydrogen storage capacity maps provide important data for various branches of industry.
Continuous population growth and enhanced living standards have caused a significant rise in energy demand worldwide. Because of the intermittent nature of renewables (Solar, Wind, Geothermal, etc.), ...their integration with large scale hydrogen generation and storage units is required for sustainability. The present work reviews the worldwide developmental status of large-scale hydrogen storage demonstrations using various storage technologies such as compressed, cryogenic, liquid organic hydrogen carrier, and solid-state hydrogen storage. It covers the classification of tank materials with distinguished manufacturers based on pressure range (200–950 bar), cost (83–700 USD/kg), and windings for compressed hydrogen storage. A brief summary of active and developing underground storage sites in various parts of the world is also included. It also provides a comparative review of different liquefaction cycle based installed systems and corresponding energy input. The review summarizes industrial establishments working in the field of liquid organic hydrogen carriers for H2 storage and transportation. It also covers a brief review on other adsorption and absorption based large-scale hydrogen storage systems. Furthermore, the review lays down the roadmap of hydrogen infrastructure for developing countries like India. A comparative overview of the economics of hydrogen production globally is also presented.
Economic, efficient and safe hydrogen storage is the key to hydrogen economy. High pressure gaseous hydrogen storage offers the simplest solution in terms of infrastructure requirements and has ...become the most popular and highly developed method. There are three types of high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage vessel, namely: stationary, vehicular, and bulk transportation. First, recent progress toward low-cost, large capacity and light-weight on high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage vessels is reviewed. Then, three important aspects of high pressure gaseous hydrogen safety, i.e., hydrogen embrittlement of metals at room temperature, temperature rise in hydrogen fast filling, and potential risks such as diffusion, deflagration, and detonation after hydrogen leakage are introduced. A concise overview of the development on code and standard for high pressure hydrogen storage is also presented. Finally, some suggestions on the further research are proposed.
► Recent progress on high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage vessels, high pressure gaseous hydrogen safety and related codes and standards is reviewed in this article. Then some suggestions on the following aspects are proposed: ► Light-weight and low-cost bulk transportation high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage vessel. Significant challenges have been optimizing manufacturing issues, increasing service pressure, and minimizing production expenses. Methods for various tests, such as rail impact test, bonfire test, sub-length cycle test, sub-scale cycle test, etc. should be developed to validate manufacturing process and design. ► Durability of components in contact with high pressure hydrogen. It is necessary to establish a property database for fatigue and hydrogen embrittlement of materials used in high pressure hydrogen service and to develop related evaluation method for components in contact with high pressure hydrogen. ► Performance test method for high pressure hydrogen system and its key components. Performance-based tests ensure high pressure hydrogen system and its key components are fully capable of avoiding failure (rupture, leakage) under extreme conditions of usage that include extensive fueling frequency, physical damage and harsh environmental conditions. Methods are to be established and validated. ► Prediction and control of risk due to leakage of high pressure hydrogen. There is interaction between obstacles and hydrogen flow, hydrogen flame, detonation wave, and its impact on deflagration to detonation transition (DDT). Such interaction should be considered during establishing method for prediction and control of risk caused by leakage of high pressure hydrogen.
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