► We review the state of knowledge in urban rainfall, hydrology and stormwater management. ► There are promising new technologies for measuring and predicting rainfall and runoff. ► Stormwater must ...be managed as a resource to protect the flow regime and water quality. ► Managing the urban water balance has environmental and human benefits. ► Climate change poses a significant challenge to urban stormwater systems.
Urban hydrology has evolved to improve the way urban runoff is managed for flood protection, public health and environmental protection. There have been significant recent advances in the measurement and prediction of urban rainfall, with technologies such as radar and microwave networks showing promise. The ability to predict urban hydrology has also evolved, to deliver models suited to the small temporal and spatial scales typical of urban and peri-urban applications. Urban stormwater management increasingly consider the needs of receiving environments as well as those of humans. There is a clear trend towards approaches that attempt to restore pre-development flow-regimes and water quality, with an increasing recognition that restoring a more natural water balance benefits not only the environment, but enhances the liveability of the urban landscape. Once regarded only as a nuisance, stormwater is now increasingly regarded as a resource. Despite the advances, many important challenges in urban hydrology remain. Further research into the spatio-temporal dynamics of urban rainfall is required to improve short-term rainfall prediction. The performance of stormwater technologies in restoring the water balance and in removing emerging priority pollutants remain poorly quantified. All of these challenges are overlaid by the uncertainty of climate change, which imposes a requirement to ensure that stormwater management systems are adaptable and resilient to changes. Urban hydrology will play a critical role in addressing these challenges.
The management of urban stormwater has become increasingly complex over recent decades. Consequently, terminology describing the principles and practices of urban drainage has become increasingly ...diverse, increasing the potential for confusion and miscommunication. This paper documents the history, scope, application and underlying principles of terms used in urban drainage and provides recommendations for clear communication of these principles. Terminology evolves locally and thus has an important role in establishing awareness and credibility of new approaches and contains nuanced understandings of the principles that are applied locally to address specific problems. Despite the understandable desire to have a 'uniform set of terminology', such a concept is flawed, ignoring the fact that terms reflect locally shared understanding. The local development of terminology thus has an important role in advancing the profession, but authors should facilitate communication between disciplines and between regions of the world, by being explicit and accurate in their application.
Current stormwater quality modelling tools lack robust mathematical replication of nutrient entrainment in runoff. This makes it challenging to design effective stormwater treatment systems such as ...nature based solutions with adequate resilience to future changes in nutrient inputs in urban environments. Consequently, poorly treated stormwater can be discharged into receiving waters, leading to nutrient enrichment and in turn, environmental and human health impacts. This study integrated empirically based with statistical modelling techniques to incorporate nutrient dynamics into commonly used Intensity-Frequency-Duration (IFD) distributions of design rainfall. Field based nutrient wash-off experiments were conducted to understand nutrient behaviour during a runoff event. New mathematical formulations were derived to describe the decay (wash-off) of nutrients. Rainfall intensity, duration and initially accumulated pollutant load exert positive influence on the decay of nitrogen and phosphorous, while organic carbon has a negative impact on phosphorus decay. It was also evident that nitrogen species would decay at a similar rate, while phosphorus species may decay at different rates. Compared to nitrogen species, phosphorous species were found more likely to be washed-off during a rainfall event. Using the mathematical formulations developed, wash-off of nitrogen and phosphorous was simulated for 435 very frequent and frequent/infrequent design rainfall events leading to the creation of Intensity-Frequency-Duration-Wash-off (IFDW) curves. Analysis of uncertainty associated with IFDW indicated that total phosphorous could be completely washed-off during most of the design rainfall events, while total nitrogen would only be completely washed-off by very few events that are rarer than 10 % AEP (annual exceedance probability). IFDW can act as a tool for supporting effective stormwater treatment design in order to promote sustainable stormwater management and reuse.
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•Empirically-based, statistical modelling integrated to replicate nutrient dynamics•Nitrogen species wash-off at similar rates•Phosphorous species can wash-off at different rates.•Created Intensity-Frequency-Duration-Wash-off (IFDW) distributions•IFDW can be applied as a reference tool for designing stormwater treatment measures.
Abstract
Urban waterlogging and the deterioration of receiving water quality caused by stormwater runoff have become increasingly significant problems. Based on the concept of combining grey and ...green infrastructure, a combined permeable concrete pavement (PCP) and constructed wetland (CW) system has been developed to treat stormwater runoff and enable on-site reuse. The results showed that the removal rate of suspended solids (SS) by PCP ranged from 96.61 to 99.20%; however, the chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations in the effluent did not meet the standards required for rainwater reuse. For the combined PCP-CW system, the removal rates of COD, TN and TP by the CW were 48.45–75.12%, 47.26–53.05%, and 59.04–75.28%, respectively, under different hydraulic loading (HL) rates; thus, the effluent TN concentrations did not consistently meet the reuse standards. Further optimization of aeration in different parts of the CW revealed that aeration in the middle and front sections of the wetland had the most significant effect on pollutant removal, under which the TN concentrations in the effluent met the standard required for reuse. The effluent from the combined PCP-CW system was able to fully meet the stormwater reuse standards under these optimized conditions, and the reuse of urban stormwater runoff can therefore be realized.
Stormwater runoff clearly impacts water quality and ecological health of urban receiving waters. Subsequent management efforts are often guided by conceptual models of contaminant “first flushes”, ...defined by disproportionate concentrations or mass loads early in the storm hydrograph. However, studies examining the dynamics of contaminant transport and receiving water hydrology have primarily focused on “traditional” stormwater contaminants and point sources, with less evaluation of chemically complex nonpoint pollution sources. Accordingly, we conducted baseflow and storm sampling in Miller Creek, a representative small, urban watershed in the Puget Sound region (WA, USA). We comprehensively characterized organic contaminant profiles and dynamics via targeted quantification of 35 stormwater-derived chemicals, complementary nontarget HRMS analyses, and surrogate chemical metrics of ecological health. For quantified analytes, total daily baseflow loads were 0.8–3.4 g/day and storm event loads were ∼80–320 g/storm (∼48 h interval), with nine contaminants detected during storms at >500 ng/L. Notably, urban creek “pollutographs” were much broader than relatively sharp storm hydrographs and exhibited transport-limited (rather than mass-limited) source dynamics, with immediate water quality degradation during low-intensity precipitation and continued mobilization of contaminant mass across the entire hydrograph. Study outcomes support prioritization of source identification and focused stormwater management efforts to improve water quality and promote ecosystem function in small urban receiving waters.
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With rapid urbanization, flooding events become more frequently in daily life, causing enormous economic damage and loss of life. Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is a common ...approach for mitigating stormwater runoff. However, it showed limited performance in big catchment areas (>1000 ha). This study proposed an innovative approach by combining conventional WSUD projects with the stormwater pipeline network through linear connections for better stormwater runoff management for a big catchment. The performance of combined WSUD projects and conventional WSUD was evaluated using the urban water system of a catchment (over 1200 ha) in Sydney, Australia, through the water mass balance modelling approach using annual rainfall data of 70 years (from 1950 to 2020). Combined WSUD reduced the stormwater runoff by over 124 ML/yr compared to that of the conventional WSUD model in accommodating future development. Combined WSUD restored the evapotranspiration and infiltration under high, average and low annual rainfall scenarios with an increasing 20–30% increase of evapotranspiration and infiltration in combined WSUD than the conventional WSUD. The results obtained from the study demonstrated that combining WSUDs with the stormwater pipeline network through linear connections is a promising approach in stormwater management and restoring the natural hydrological cycle.
The urban environment modifies the hydrologic cycle resulting in increased runoff rates, volumes, and peak flows. Green infrastructure, which uses best management practices (BMPs), is a natural ...system approach used to mitigate the impacts of urbanization onto stormwater runoff. Patterns of stormwater runoff from urban environments are complex, and it is unclear how efficiently green infrastructure will improve the urban water cycle. These challenges arise from issues of scale, the merits of BMPs depend on changes to small‐scale hydrologic processes aggregated up from the neighborhood to the urban watershed. Here, we use a hyper‐resolution (1 m), physically based hydrologic model of the urban hydrologic cycle with explicit inclusion of the built environment. This model represents the changes to hydrology at the BMP scale (~1 m) and represents each individual BMP explicitly to represent response over the urban watershed. Our study varies both the percentage of BMP emplacement and their spatial location for storm events of increasing intensity in an urban watershed. We develop a metric of effectiveness that indicates a nonlinear relationship that is seen between percent BMP emplacement and storm intensity. Results indicate that BMP effectiveness varies with spatial location and that type and emplacement within the urban watershed may be more important than overall percent.
Stormwater reuse is increasingly popular in the worldwide. In terms of urban road stormwater, it commonly contains toxic pollutants such as heavy metals, which could undermine the reuse safety. The ...research study investigated heavy metal build-up characteristics on urban roads in a typical megacity of South China. The research outcomes show the high variability in heavy metal build-up loads among different urban road sites. The degree of traffic congestion and road surface roughness was found to exert a more significant influence on heavy metal build-up rather than traffic volume. Due to relatively higher heavy metal loads, stormwater from roads with more congested traffic conditions or rougher surfaces might be suitable for low-water-quality required activities while the stormwater from by-pass road sections could be appropriate for relatively high-water-quality required purposes since the stormwater could be relatively less polluted. Based on the research outcomes, a decision-making process for heavy metals based urban road stormwater reuse was proposed. The new finding highlights the importance to undertaking a “fit-for-purpose” road stormwater reuse strategy. Additionally, the research results can also contribute to enhancing stormwater reuse safety.
•Heavy metal (HM) build-up varies with traffic and road surface conditions.•Traffic congestion and surface roughness exert a higher impact on HM build-up.•A “fit-for-purpose” strategy could suit urban road stormwater reuse.
Pollutant first flush in urban stormwater runoff is an important phenomenon influenced by a range of rainfall and catchment related variables. Even though numerous studies have been undertaken to ...mathematically define the first flush and the influential variables of first flush, limited research have been carried out to rank such variables in terms of their level of importance in generating first flush. Identifying the degree of importance of the variables is critical for accurate predictions of first flush occurrence and understanding the main drivers of first flush. This research study undertook a comprehensive analysis of the variables influencing the predictions of first flush occurrence and their relative importance. The study results are expected to contribute to more accurate predictions of first flush by affording greater importance to the highly ranked factors and their impacts. The study outcomes confirmed that total rainfall depth was the most important variable influencing the prediction of first flush events while the maximum intensity was the second. Rain duration, runoff depth, runoff peak and average intensity were the next four most important variables. Antecedent dry period and effective impervious area fraction had relatively low ranking while the time of concentration and the event mean concentration were found to be the least important variables. Furthermore, the study outcomes highlight that the use of a combination of variables and due consideration of their interactions can yield better results than considering their individual roles.
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•Variables ranked on importance in predicating the first flush occurrence.•Rainfall depth is the most important followed by maximum rainfall intensity.•Considering variables in combination yield better predictions than individual.
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