Because current automated vehicles have operational limitations, it is important to ensure that the fallback-ready driver is able to perform appropriately when required to take over control of the ...vehicle. However, time-related increase in driver drowsiness is well-known, and drowsy driving can affect response to take-over request (TOR). It was previously reported that a scheduled period of manual driving during automated driving was beneficial in maintaining driver arousal level. The present driving simulator study investigates the effects of scheduled manual driving on driver drowsiness and performance, as well as age differences therein. A total of 115 participants, whose gender was balanced and age was distributed uniformly from 20 to 70 years, drove an automated vehicle for 31 min, and a TOR was prompted before a collision event. A between-subjects design comprised two conditions: with versus without a scheduled 10-min interval of manual driving that ended 10 min before TOR. The Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and eyeblink durations estimated from electrooculograms (EOG) were used to subjectively and objectively measure participant's drowsiness. Reaction time, standard deviation of steering wheel angle, and minimum Time-to-Collison (TTC) were extracted to measure driver performance in response to TOR. The alleviating effect on drowsiness of 10-min scheduled manual driving became non-significant after another 10-min period of automated driving. Although the scheduled manual driving had no significant effect for younger drivers, older drivers reacted significantly more slowly in both steering and braking at the critical event. These findings provide essential insights for human-vehicle interactions: Scheduled manual driving cannot maintain drivers' arousal level for 10 min afterwards, and for older drivers, it would be better to avoid unnecessary task-switching between manual and automated driving.
Motorized transport access and out-of-home activities are two potential correlates of Life-space mobility (LSM), a common research topic in mobility studies of older adults. These correlates remain ...mostly unexplored in previous literature and relating them with LSM can reveal directions for improving the LSM of older adults.
The associations between motorized transport access, out-of-home activities, and LSM were examined using data from 1,333 older adults (mean age = 70.63) living in 15 cities and towns in Japan. LSM was assessed using composite life-space assessment (LSA) scores. Motorized transport access was measured using dummies showing whether a person had car access (divided into five levels) and used public transport (bus and railway), and out-of-home activities were measured using the number of various activities that were conducted during the most recent weekday and weekend day. Generalized linear models were used to assess the associations.
The sample was dominated by males (74.42%), with more than half of the sample had their own cars. On average, each respondent had four activities during two survey days, and shopping was the most common activity. The results showed that owning a car and using railway, as well as various activities were associated with increased composite LSA scores, whereas no cars or only shared cars in home were associated with decreased composite LSA scores. However, these associations differed between males and females.
In this study, different levels of motorized transport access and different types of out-of-home activities were found to associate differently with composite LSA scores. Based on these findings, we suggest that policymakers should provide more transport access, pay more attention to the LSM of older adults with high clinics/hospital activities, and trigger more shopping and daily leisure activities for older adults to improve the LSM of this population.
•Eyeblink duration was used to evaluate drowsiness development in automated driving.•Non-driving related task engagements countered younger drivers’ drowsiness.•Non-driving related task engagements ...delayed older drivers’ reaction times.•Age-related differences need to be considered for human-automation interactions.
Introduction: During SAE level 3 automated driving, the driver’s role changes from active driver to fallback-ready driver. Drowsiness is one of the factors that may degrade driver’s takeover performance. This study aimed to investigate effects of non-driving related tasks (NDRTs) to counter driver’s drowsiness with a Level 3 system activated and to improve successive takeover performance in a critical situation. A special focus was placed on age-related differences in the effects. Method: Participants of three age groups (younger, middle-aged, older) drove the Level 3 system implemented in a high-fidelity motion-based driving simulator for about 30 min under three experiment conditions: without NDRT, while watching a video clip, and while switching between watching a video clip and playing a game. The Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and eyeblink duration measured driver drowsiness. At the end of the drive, the drivers had to take over control of the vehicle and manually change the lane to avoid a collision. Reaction time and steering angle variability were measured to evaluate the two aspects of driving performance. Results: For younger drivers, both single and multiple NDRT engagements countered the development of driver drowsiness during automated driving, and their takeover performance was equivalent to or better than their performance without NDRT engagement. For older drivers, NDRT engagement did not affect the development of drowsiness but degraded takeover performance especially under the multiple NDRT engagement condition. The results for middle-aged drivers fell at an intermediate level between those for younger and older drivers. Practical Applications: The present findings do not support general recommendations of NDRT engagement to counter drowsiness during automated driving. This study is especially relevant to the automotive industry’s search for options that will ensure the safest interfaces between human drivers and automation systems.
A one-pedal system for operating an electric vehicle allows drivers to flexibly accelerate and decelerate (and even stop) by using just an accelerator pedal. Based on previous findings, one-pedal ...operation is considered to have the potential to increase positive emotions and decrease cognitive workload. To test this possibility, the present study compared the emotional state and cognitive workload between one-pedal and conventional two-pedal operation. Participants drove a vehicle on public roads, and driving enjoyment (i.e., pleasure and immersion) and the cognitive workload (i.e., ease and effortlessness) were assessed by means of questionnaires. In addition, physiological variations associated with driving pleasure and difficulty were assessed by electroencephalography (EEG). Both the questionnaire and EEG results revealed an increase in driving enjoyment in one-pedal operation. On the other hand, only the EEG results suggested a decrease in the cognitive workload in one-pedal operation; the questionnaire results did not show a significant difference between the pedal conditions. These findings support the notion that one-pedal operation has a positive influence on the driver's mental state, though its influence on the cognitive workload will require further investigation. We discuss future directions toward a better understanding of the effects of one-pedal operation on the driver's mental state.
•Drivers' mental states when using a one-pedal operating system were examined.•EEGs and questionnaires were obtained during/after driving on public roads.•One-pedal compared to two-pedal operation increased driving enjoyment.•One-pedal operation possibly decreased the cognitive workload.•One-pedal operation may have a positive influence on the drivers' mental state.
Understanding factors regarding individual variability in human mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic would help inform future political and medical decisions. Particularly, understanding ...environmental factors would provide effective evidence for future urban development and the construction of a mobility service. Given the limited related evidence thus far, we investigated inter-individual variability in human mobility regarding life space during COVID-19 in Japan. We conducted an online survey to assess human mobility, demographics, and personality, and city structure surveys for objective environmental factors. Human mobility was assessed using the Life Space Assessment (LSA) questionnaire. Result revealed that the total LSA score was significantly higher in people who were men, middle-aged, working, living with their children, public transportation users, bicycle users, and car drivers, and those having a higher score for extraversion and ego resiliency and a lower score for conscientiousness. People living in the city with high traffic on the roads between plains and mountains had a higher LSA score, and had a lower score where there were many plains with a consistent road density, revealing diverse individual and environmental factors associated with human mobility during the pandemic. Thus, political decisions for urban development should consider these characteristics, the pandemic, and individual convenience.
This paper reviews the history of automotive technology development and human factors research, largely by decade, since the inception of the automobile. The human factors aspects were classified ...into primary driving task aspects (controls, displays, and visibility), driver workspace (seating and packaging, vibration, comfort, and climate), driver’s condition (fatigue and impairment), crash injury, advanced driver-assistance systems, external communication access, and driving behavior. For each era, the paper describes the SAE and ISO standards developed, the major organizations and conferences established, the major news stories affecting vehicle safety, and the general social context. The paper ends with a discussion of what can be learned from this historical review and the major issues to be addressed. A major contribution of this paper is more than 180 references that represent the foundation of automotive human factors, which should be considered core knowledge and should be familiar to those in the profession.
•Electrophysiological signals of drivers and passengers were compared.•Number of saccades, P1 amplitude of EFRP, and eye-blink duration were different.•These indices can be useful for evaluating ...drivers’ attention in autonomous vehicles.
In order to safely use autonomous vehicle technologies, it is important to understand the state of drivers’ attention as they ride in Level 3 self-driving vehicles, because they might be required to take manual control of the vehicle in certain situations. We assumed that the attentional state of a driver who has perfect confidence in a self-driving system, and as a result, who is unready to take control of the vehicle is similar to that of a passenger riding in a vehicle driven by another person. Therefore, we compared electrophysiological signals from drivers and passengers that were riding a vehicle in real road environments. Results indicated the following differences: (1) The number of small saccadic eye-movements was greater in drivers than in passengers, whereas the number of large saccadic eye-movements was greater in passengers than in drivers, indicating that passengers tended to look at information irrelevant to safe driving. (2) The amplitude of the P1 component of eye-fixation-related brain potentials time-locked to the offset of large saccadic eye-movements was greater in drivers than in passengers, indicating that visual information processing load was lower in passengers. (3) The duration of eye-blinks was longer in passengers than in drivers, indicating that the arousal level of passengers was relatively low. These findings suggest that these electrophysiological indices can be useful measures for evaluating the attention of drivers while riding in Level 3 autonomous vehicles. Possible differences in the attentional state between drivers and passengers are discussed.
The automobile has greatly influenced our daily lives, and has given birth to the culture of automobiles in various places. Among them is the culture of material related to the automobile itself but ...there are also many cultures of lifestyle that are developed by automobiles in various aspects of life. Here, we will introduce the interfaces as a culture of material, and the dining-out culture and outdoor life culture as cultures that have been developed through the use of automobiles, including their historical background.
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