BACKGROUND
Across the developed world couples are postponing parenthood. This review assesses the consequences of delayed family formation from a demographic and medical perspective. One main focus ...is on the quantitative importance of pregnancy postponement.
METHODS
Medical and social science databases were searched for publications on relevant subjects such as delayed parenthood, female and male age, fertility, infertility, time to pregnancy (TTP), fetal death, outcome of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) and mental well-being.
RESULTS
Postponement of parenthood is linked to a higher rate of involuntary childlessness and smaller families than desired due to increased infertility and fetal death with higher female and male age. For women, the increased risk of prolonged TTP, infertility, spontaneous abortions, ectopic pregnancies and trisomy 21 starts at around 30 years of age with a more pronounced effects >35 years, whereas the increasing risk of preterm births and stillbirths starts at around 35 years with a more pronounced effect >40 years. Advanced male age has an important but less pronounced effect on infertility and adverse outcomes. MAR treatment cannot overcome the age-related decline in fecundity.
CONCLUSIONS
In general, women have partners who are several years older than themselves and it is important to focus more on the combined effect of higher female and male age on infertility and reproductive outcome. Increasing public awareness of the impact of advanced female and male age on the reproductive outcome is essential for people to make well-informed decisions on when to start family formation.
STUDY QUESTION
What is the prevalence in a normal population of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) according to the Rotterdam criteria versus revised criteria including anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH)?
...SUMMARY ANSWER
The prevalence of PCOS was 16.6% according to the Rotterdam criteria. When replacing the criterion for polycystic ovaries by antral follicle count (AFC) > 19 or AMH > 35 pmol/l, the prevalence of PCOS was 6.3 and 8.5%, respectively.
WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY?
The Rotterdam criteria state that two out of the following three criteria should be present in the diagnosis of PCOS: oligo-anovulation, clinical and/or biochemical hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovaries (AFC ≥ 12 and/or ovarian volume >10 ml). However, with the advances in sonography, the relevance of the AFC threshold in the definition of polycystic ovaries has been challenged, and AMH has been proposed as a marker of polycystic ovaries in PCOS.
STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION
From 2008 to 2010, a prospective, cross-sectional study was performed including 863 women aged 20–40 years and employed at Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark.
PARTICIPANTS/MATERIAL, SETTING, METHODS
We studied a subgroup of 447 women with a mean (±SD) age of 33.5 (±4.0) years who were all non-users of hormonal contraception. Data on menstrual cycle disorder and the presence of hirsutism were obtained. On cycle Days 2–5, or on a random day in the case of oligo- or amenorrhoea, sonographic and endocrine parameters were measured.
MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE
The prevalence of PCOS was 16.6% according to the Rotterdam criteria. PCOS prevalence significantly decreased with age from 33.3% in women < 30 years to 14.7% in women aged 30–34 years, and 10.2% in women ≥ 35 years (P < 0.001). In total, 53.5% fulfilled the criterion for polycystic ovaries with a significant age-related decrease from 69.0% in women < 30 years to 55.8% in women aged 30–34 years, and 42.8% in women ≥ 35 years (P < 0.001). AMH or age-adjusted AMH Z-score was found to be a reliable marker of polycystic ovaries in women with PCOS according to the Rotterdam criteria area under the curve (AUC) 0.994; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.990–0.999 and AUC 0.992 (95% CI: 0.987–0.998), respectively, and an AMH cut-off value of 18 pmol/l and AMH Z-score of −0.2 showed the best compromise between sensitivity (91.8 and 90.4%, respectively) and specificity (98.1 and 97.9%, respectively). In total, AFC > 19 or AMH > 35 occurred in 17.7 and 23.0%, respectively. The occurrence of AFC > 19 or AMH > 35 in the age groups < 30, 30–34 and ≥ 35 years was 31.0 and 35.7%, 18.8 and 21.3%, and 9.6 and 18.7%, respectively. When replacing the Rotterdam criterion for polycystic ovaries by AFC > 19 or AMH > 35 pmol/l, the prevalence of PCOS was 6.3 or 8.5%, respectively, and in the age groups < 30, 30–34 and ≥ 35 years, the prevalences were 17.9 and 22.6%, 3.6 and 5.6%, and 3.6 and 4.8%, respectively.
LIMITATIONS, REASON FOR CAUTION
The participants of the study were all health-care workers, which may be a source of selection bias. Furthermore, the exclusion of hormonal contraceptive users from the study population may have biased the results, potentially excluding women with symptoms of PCOS.
WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
AMH may be used as a marker of polycystic ovaries in PCOS. However, future studies are needed to validate AMH threshold levels, and AMH Z-score may be appropriate to adjust for the age-related decline in the AFC.
STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)
None.
TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER
Not applicable.
Abstract It remains controversial whether anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration is influenced by hormonal contraception. This study quantified the effect of hormonal contraception on both ...endocrine and sonographic ovarian reserve markers in 228 users and 504 non-users of hormonal contraception. On day 2–5 of the menstrual cycle or during withdrawal bleeding, blood sampling and transvaginal sonography was performed. After adjusting for age, ovarian reserve parameters were lower among users than among non-users of hormonal contraception: serum AMH concentration by 29.8% (95% CI 19.9 to 38.5%), antral follicle count (AFC) by 30.4% (95% CI 23.6 to 36.7%) and ovarian volume by 42.2% (95% CI 37.8 to 46.3%). AFC in all follicle size categories (small, 2–4 mm; intermediate, 5–7 mm; large, 8–10 mm) was lower in users than in non-users of hormonal contraception. A negatively linear association was observed between duration of hormonal-contraception use and ovarian reserve parameters. No dose–response relation was found between the dose of ethinyloestradiol and AMH or AFC. This study indicates that ovarian reserve markers are lower in women using sex steroids for contraception. Thus, AMH concentration and AFC may not retain their accuracy as predictors of ovarian reserve in women using hormonal contraception. Serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration is an indirect marker of the number of small follicles in the ovary and thereby the ovarian reserve. The AMH concentration is now widely used as one of the markers of the ovarian reserve in ovarian hormonal stimulation regimens. Hence the AMH concentration in a patient is used to decide the dose of the ovarian hormonal stimulation prior to IVF treatment. In some infertile patients, hormonal contraception is used prior to ovarian hormonal stimulation and therefore it is important to clarify whether serum AMH concentration is influenced by the use of sex steroids. The aim of this study was to quantify the potential effect of hormonal contraception on the ovarian function by hormonal analyses and ovarian ultrasound examination. Examinations were performed in the early phase of the menstrual cycle or the hormone-free interval of hormonal contraception. We compared the AMH concentration, the antral follicle count (AFC) and the ovarian volume in 228 users versus 504 non-users of hormonal contraception. Users of hormonal contraception had 29.8% lower AMH concentration, 30.4% lower AFC and 42.2% lower ovarian volume than non-users. These findings were more pronounced with increasing duration of hormonal contraception. No dose–response relation was found between the dose of ethinylestradiol and the impact on serum AMH and AFC. The study indicates that ovarian reserve markers are lower in women using sex steroids for contraception. Thus, serum AMH concentration and AFC may not retain their accuracy as predictors of the ovarian reserve in women using hormonal contraception.
Context:
The interindividual variation in the age-related decline of ovarian follicles is wide. Hence, it is important to identify reliable, sensitive, and specific markers to assess the ovarian ...reserve of the individual woman.
Objective:
The aim of this study was to characterize the relation between age and ovarian reserve parameters in a population of healthy women with regular menstrual cycle.
Design and Setting:
We conducted a prospective, population-based, cross-sectional study.
Participants:
A total of 366 health care workers aged 21–41 years employed at a University Hospital were included.
Interventions:
There were no interventions.
Main Outcome Measures:
Serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration, antral follicle count (AFC), antral follicle size categories (small: 2–4 mm; intermediate: 5–7 mm; and large: 8–10 mm), and ovarian volume were measured.
Results:
Serum AMH level declined by 5.6% per year (95% confidence interval 3.7–7.4%, P < .001), AFC (2–10 mm) declined by 4.4% per year (3.2–5.7%, P < .001), and ovarian volume declined by 1.1% per year (0.2–2.0, P = .002), respectively. The mean proportion of small follicles decreased with age (P = .04), the proportion of intermediate follicles displayed no significant change with age (P = .58), and the mean proportion of large follicles increased with age (P < .001). The prevalence of large follicles increased with decreasing serum AMH concentration odds ratio 1.04 per 1 pmol/L (1.02–1.06), P < .001, area under the curve 0.66, and with decreasing total AFC odds ratio 1.04 per follicle (1.02–1.05), P < .001, area under the curve 0.62.
Conclusion:
Chronological age was inversely related to serum AMH concentration, total AFC, and ovarian volume. Subclasses of AFC sized 2–4 and 5–7 mm decreased with increasing age, whereas AFC sized 8–10 mm increased with increasing age. Within AFC, a shift toward larger follicles with increasing age was observed. The occurrence of large follicles was more strongly related to biological age in terms of AMH and AFC than chronological age.
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION
Which add-ons are safe and effective to be used in ART treatment?
SUMMARY ANSWER
Forty-two recommendations were formulated on the use of add-ons in the diagnosis of fertility ...problems, the IVF laboratory and clinical management of IVF treatment.
WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY
The innovative nature of ART combined with the extremely high motivation of the patients has opened the door to the wide application of what has become known as ‘add-ons’ in reproductive medicine. These supplementary options are available to patients in addition to standard fertility procedures, typically incurring an additional cost. A diverse array of supplementary options is made available, encompassing tests, drugs, equipment, complementary or alternative therapies, laboratory procedures, and surgical interventions. These options share the common aim of stating to enhance pregnancy or live birth rates, mitigate the risk of miscarriage, or expedite the time to achieving pregnancy.
STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION
ESHRE aimed to develop clinically relevant and evidence-based recommendations focusing on the safety and efficacy of add-ons currently used in fertility procedures in order to improve the quality of care for patients with infertility.
PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS
ESHRE appointed a European multidisciplinary working group consisting of practising clinicians, embryologists, and researchers who have demonstrated leadership and expertise in the care and research of infertility. Patient representatives were included in the working group. To ensure that the guidelines are evidence-based, the literature identified from a systematic search was reviewed and critically appraised. In the absence of any clear scientific evidence, recommendations were based on the professional experience and consensus of the working group. The guidelines are thus based on the best available evidence and expert agreement. Prior to publication, the guidelines were reviewed by 46 independent international reviewers. A total of 272 comments were received and incorporated where relevant.
MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE
The multidisciplinary working group formulated 42 recommendations in three sections; diagnosis and diagnostic tests, laboratory tests and interventions, and clinical management.
LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION
Of the 42 recommendations, none could be based on high-quality evidence and only four could be based on moderate-quality evidence, implicating that 95% of the recommendations are supported only by low-quality randomized controlled trials, observational data, professional experience, or consensus of the development group.
WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
These guidelines offer valuable direction for healthcare professionals who are responsible for the care of patients undergoing ART treatment for infertility. Their purpose is to promote safe and effective ART treatment, enabling patients to make informed decisions based on realistic expectations. The guidelines aim to ensure that patients are fully informed about the various treatment options available to them and the likelihood of any additional treatment or test to improve the chance of achieving a live birth.
STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)
All costs relating to the development process were covered from ESHRE funds. There was no external funding of the development process or manuscript production. K.L. reports speakers fees from Merck and was part of a research study by Vitrolife (unpaid). T.E. reports consulting fees from Gynemed, speakers fees from Gynemed and is part of the scientific advisory board of Hamilton Thorne. N.P.P. reports grants from Merck Serono, Ferring Pharmaceutical, Theramex, Gedeon Richter, Organon, Roche, IBSA and Besins Healthcare, speakers fees from Merck Serono, Ferring Pharmaceutical, Theramex, Gedeon Richter, Organon, Roche, IBSA and Besins Healthcare. S.R.H. declares being managing director of Fertility Europe, a not-for-profit organization receiving financial support from ESHRE. I.S. is a scientific advisor for and has stock options from Alife Health, is co-founder of IVFvision LTD (unpaid) and received speakers’ fee from the 2023 ART Young Leader Prestige workshop in China. A.P. reports grants from Gedeon Richter, Ferring Pharmaceuticals and Merck A/S, consulting fees from Preglem, Novo Nordisk, Ferring Pharmaceuticals, Gedeon Richter, Cryos and Merck A/S, speakers fees from Gedeon Richter, Ferring Pharmaceuticals, Merck A/S, Theramex and Organon, travel fees from Gedeon Richter. The other authors disclosed no conflicts of interest.
DISCLAIMER
This Good Practice Recommendations (GPRs) document represents the views of ESHRE, which are the result of consensus between the relevant ESHRE stakeholders and are based on the scientific evidence available at the time of preparation.
ESHRE GPRs should be used for information and educational purposes. They should not be interpreted as setting a standard of care or bedeemedinclusive of all proper methods of care, or be exclusive of other methods of care reasonably directed to obtaining the same results.Theydo not replace the need for application of clinical judgement to each individual presentation, or variations based on locality and facility type.
Furthermore, ESHRE GPRs do not constitute or imply the endorsement, or favouring, of any of the included technologies by ESHRE.
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION
Do infertile patients below the age of 40 years have a lower ovarian reserve, estimated by anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and total antral follicle count (AFC), than women of ...the same age with no history of infertility?
SUMMARY ANSWER
Serum AMH and AFC were not lower in infertile patients aged 20–39 years compared with a control group of the same age with no history of infertility.
WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY?
The management of patients with a low ovarian reserve and a poor response to controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) remains a challenge in assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Both AMH levels and AFC reflect the ovarian reserve and are valuable predictors of the ovarian response to exogenous gonadotrophins. However, there is a large inter-individual variation in the age-related depletion of the ovarian reserve and a broad variability in the levels of AMH and AFC compatible with conception. Women with an early depletion of the ovarian reserve may experience infertility as a consequence of postponement of childbearing. Thus, low ovarian reserve is considered to be overrepresented among infertile patients.
STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION
A prospective cohort study including 382 women with a male partner referred to fertility treatment at Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark during 2011–2013 compared with a control group of 350 non-users of hormonal contraception with no history of infertility recruited during 2008–2010.
PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS
Included patients and controls were aged 20–39 years. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome were excluded. On Cycle Days 2–5, AFC and ovarian volume were measured by transvaginal sonography, and serum levels of AMH, FSH and LH were assessed.
MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE
Infertile patients had similar AMH levels (11%, 95% confidence interval (CI): −1;24%) and AFC (1%, 95% CI: −7;8%) compared with controls with no history of infertility in an age-adjusted linear regression analysis. The prevalence of very low AMH levels (<5 pmol/l) was similar in the two cohorts (age-adjusted odds ratio: 0.9, 95% CI: 0.5;1.7). The findings persisted after adjustment for smoking status, body mass index, gestational age at birth, previous conception and chronic disease in addition to age.
LIMITATIONS, REASON FOR CAUTION
The comparison of ovarian reserve parameters in women recruited at different time intervals could be a reason for caution. However, all women were examined at the same centre using the same sonographic algorithm and AMH immunoassay.
WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
This study indicates that the frequent observation of patients with a poor response to COS in ART may not be due to an overrepresentation of women with an early depletion of the ovarian reserve but rather a result of the expected age-related decline in fertility.
STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)
The study received funding from MSD and the Interregional European Union (EU) projects ‘ReproSund’ and ‘ReproHigh’. The authors have no conflict of interest.
TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER
Not applicable.
STUDY QUESTION
Is the ovarian reserve in a woman at a given age associated with her mother's age at menopause?
SUMMARY ANSWER
We demonstrated a significant, positive association between age at ...maternal menopause and serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels and antral follicle count (AFC) in daughters. The rate of decline in serum-AMH level and AFC is also associated with age at maternal menopause.
WHAT IS KNOWN AND WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS
The association between menopausal age in mothers and daughters has been established through several epidemiological studies. This paper shows that early maternal menopause is related to an advanced depletion of the ovarian reserve and that late maternal menopause is related to a delayed depletion.
STUDY DESIGN AND SIZE
Cross-sectional data were obtained from a prospective cohort study of 863 women. The study comprised 527 participants from this prospective cohort whose mothers’ age at natural menopause was known.
PARTICIPANTS, SETTING AND METHODS
Participants were recruited from female health care workers aged 20–40 years employed at Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, and were enrolled in the study between September 2008 and February 2010. The response rate was 52.1%. Endocrine and ovarian parameters related to reproductive ageing (AMH and AFC) were assessed by serum AMH analyses and transvaginal ovarian sonography on cycle Day 2–5. Data on reproductive history, including age at natural maternal menopause, were obtained through an internet-based questionnaire. We used an analysis of covariance model with serum-AMH and AFC as outcomes, age as the quantitative predictor and onset of maternal menopause as the categorical predictor, with further adjustments for BMI, use of oral contraceptives, participants’ smoking habits and prenatal smoking exposure.
MAIN FINDINGS
We found a significant effect of age at maternal menopause on both serum AMH levels (P < 0.001) and AFC (P = 0.005). Median serum-AMH concentration declined by 8.6% per year 95% confidence interval (CI): 6.4–10.8%, P < 0.001 in the group with early maternal menopausal age (≤45 years), by 6.8% per year (95% CI: 5.0–8.6%, P < 0.001) in the group with normal maternal menopausal age (46–54 years) and by 4.2% per year (95% CI: 2.0–6.4%, P < 0.001) in the group with late maternal menopausal age (≥55 years). Median AFC declined by 5.8% per year (95% CI: 4.0–7.5%, P < 0.001) in the group with early maternal menopausal age (≤45 years), by 4.7% per year (95% CI: 3.3–6.1%, P < 0.001) in the group with normal maternal menopausal age (46–54 years) and by 3.2% per year (95% CI: 1.4–4.9%, P < 0.001) in the group with late maternal age (≥55 years) at menopause.
BIAS, LIMITATIONS AND GENERALIZABILITY
Information on ‘age at maternal menopause’ was obtained retrospectively and may be prone to recall bias and digit preference. The study population consisted of health care workers, which implies a potential selection bias. Finally, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits the generalizability.
STUDY FUNDING/POTENTIAL COMPETING INTERESTS
This study was co-financed by PhD scholarships where funding was covered by the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation, Copenhagen Graduate School of Health Science (CGSHS) and the Fertility Clinic at Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshopitalet. No competing interests are declared.
Abstract Previously, this study group found that female childhood cancer survivors could be at risk of early cessation of fertility. The aim of the present study was to evaluate reproductive function ...in the same group of survivors 10 years after the initial study. Of the original cohort of 100, 71 were re-examined. Thirty-six survivors reported regular menstrual cycles. When they were compared with 210 controls, they differed significantly in antral follicle count (AFC) (median 15 versus 18, P = 0.047) but not in anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) (median 13.0 versus 17.8 pmol/l). Survivors cured with minimal gonadotoxic treatment had significantly higher AMH and AFC compared with survivors cured with either potentially gonadotoxic treatment or treatment including alkylating chemotherapy and ovarian irradiation (20.0, 5.8 and <3 pmol/l, P < 0.001; and 15, 9 and 2, P = 0.03, respectively). Thirty-eight survivors had achieved at least one live birth. Complicated second-trimester abortions ( n = 4) were observed primarily in survivors cured with radiotherapy affecting pelvic organs. In conclusion, childhood cancer survivors have signs of diminished ovarian reserve. However, if the ovarian function is preserved in the early to mid-twenties, it is likely to persist until the mid-thirties, giving a good chance of childbearing. In this 10-year follow-up study, we report the reproductive function in adult female childhood cancer survivors. A total of 71 survivors out of an original cohort of 100 were re-examined in the present study. Thirty-six (51%) survivors reported regular menstrual cycles, six (8%) had irregular cycles, 11 (15%) used oral contraceptives, 12 (17%) used hormone replacement therapy and six (8%) were pregnant. When survivors with regular menstrual cycles ( n = 36) were compared with control subjects ( n = 210), there were only discrete signs of diminished reproductive function in the survivors. It is important to note, however, that reproductive function was compromised in survivors who had received antineoplastic treatment harmful to the ovaries. Among the 71 participating survivors 65% have been pregnant and 69% of the pregnancies have resulted in live births. Thus, the majority of the survivors, who had an apparently normal ovarian function in their mid-twenties, have conceived and delivered, and their ovarian reserve seems almost unchanged during the follow-up period. However, it should be highlighted that complicated second-trimester abortions ( n = 4) were observed primarily in survivors cured with radiotherapy affecting pelvic organs.
•Real-time in vivo dosimetry in prostate cancer brachytherapy.•Dwell times can be determined during patient treatment with in vivo dosimetry.•Afterloader control of dwell time was demonstrated stable ...over a year.•Incidences leading to dwell time offsets with a clinical impact can be caught by in vivo dosimetry.
This paper presents a method to verify dwell times during High Dose Rate (HDR) Brachytherapy (BT) by means of in vivo dosimetry (IVD), and reports on an afterloader’s stability in dwell time control.
In vivo dosimetry was performed during 20 HDR prostate cancer treatments using a point detector based on a radio-luminescence crystal (Al2O3:C) coupled to a fiber-optic cable. The dose rate was recorded at either 10 Hz or 20 Hz during the treatments. The “time of transit” when the source moved between two dwell positions was identified using the difference in count rate between two measurements. The dwell times were then determined by subtracting two adjacent times of transit. The measured dwell times were matched with the planned dwell times and categorised into two groups: Dwell times matching a single dwell position (identified) and dwell times matching the sum of multiple dwell positions (unidentified). Deviations between measured and planned dwell times were calculated for the identified dwell positions.
A total of 3518 dwell positions were analysed. The amount of identified dwell positions were 82%, which increased to 89% if the short dwell times (<1 s) were omitted in the analysis. The largest deviation was −0.4 s seen for a single dwell position, and in 97.1% of the cases, the deviations were <0.15 s.
The dwell times in BT are well controlled by the afterloader. It is shown that IVD facilitates the detection of dwell time offsets that could have a clinical impact.
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