•Outcomes of interactions can be sorted along continua from mutualism to antagonism.•We modelled seed dispersal and predation effects by hawfinches on a tree population.•At rates above 72% seed ...predation, its costs exceeded benefits of seed dispersal.•Changes in environment, seed dispersal and plant demography influence the continuum.•As the hawfinch predated at least 80% of seeds, it is an exploiter of the mutualism.
Seeds removed by animals have one of two mutually exclusive fates – they are either predated or dispersed and still alive. The quality of seed dispersal by animals and the number of predated seeds will therefore determine net interaction outcomes for plants. Yet, it is poorly understood what proportion of removed seeds animals can predate before benefits of dispersal no longer outweigh costs of seed loss.
Here, we calculated the mutualism-antagonism continuum for seed removal of the fleshy-fruited tree Frangula alnus by the seed-predating bird Coccothraustes coccothraustes in Białowieża Forest. We integrated effects of the bird during seed dispersal (fruit handling, seed predation, and seed deposition) into microhabitat-structured tree population models.
Results of our models showed that the probability of a seed of F. alnus reaching maturity after seed removal by C. coccothraustes decreased from 0.0028% to 0% as seed predation increased from 0% to 100%. Seed removal was beneficial when less than 63.7% of seeds were predated, and antagonistic when more than 72.0% of seeds were predated. Modifying key model parameters (here, the negative effect of fruit pulp on seedling recruitment and the frequency of forest gaps) decreased and increased rates of seed predation, at which costs of seed loss outweighed benefits of seed dispersal (from 37.9% to 80.7%).
Our findings highlight that benefits of animal seed dispersal can largely outweigh costs of seed predation in a fleshy-fruited tree. Yet, the mutualism-antagonism continuum of seed removal depends on intrinsic factors (e.g. variation in interactions among individuals) and extrinsic factors (e.g. the environment) of seed dispersal and plant demography. Because C. coccothraustes was observed predating at least 80% of removed seeds, it appears to be an antagonist of animal-dispersed plants and exploiter of the seed dispersal mutualism.
Seed dispersing animals, ranging from small insects to large mammals, provide a crucial service for a large number of plant species worldwide. However, a decline in dispersers due to direct and ...indirect threats leads to disruptions of seed dispersal processes. As disperser species are differently susceptible to these threats, consequences for ecosystems are hard to predict. Impacts range from hampered regeneration of plant species to shifts in communities and a decline in ecosystem function. Here, we review these threats as well as expected consequences for communities and for the entire ecosystem. We further introduce options to protect dispersers and consider future research directions.
Von Insekten bis hin zu Großsäugern spielen Tiere weltweit eine wichtige Rolle als Samenausbreiter für zahlreiche Pflanzenarten. Jedoch führen direkte und indirekte Gefährdungen zum Rückgang von Samenausbreitern und den von ihnen abhängigen Prozessen. Da Ausbreiterarten unterschiedlich störungsanfällig sind, ist es schwierig, Konsequenzen für das gesamte Ökosystem vorherzusagen. Bisherige Auswirkungen reichen von verminderter Regeneration verschiedener Arten über Verschiebungen in Pflanzengemeinschaften bis hin zu einem Rückgang an Ökosystemfunktion. Wir fassen die Gefährdungen sowie deren Konsequenzen für Gemeinschaften und Ökosysteme zusammen. Außerdem geben wir einen Überblick über mögliche Optionen zum Schutz von Samenausbreitern sowie über zukünftige vielversprechende Forschungsfragen.
Theory assumes that fair trade among mutualists requires highly reliable communication. In plant-animal mutualisms the reliability of cues that indicate reward quality is often low. Therefore, it is ...controversial whether communication allows animal mutualists to regulate their reward intake. Here we show that even loose relationships between fruit brightness and nutritional rewards (r
= 0.11-0.35) allow birds to regulate their nutrient intake across distinct European plant-frugivore networks. Resident, over-wintering generalist frugivores that interact with diverse plant species select bright, lipid-rich fruits, whereas migratory birds select dark, sugar- and antioxidant-rich fruits. Both nutritional strategies are consistent with previous physiological experiments suggesting that over-wintering generalists aim to maximize their energy intake, whereas migrants aim to enhance the build-up of body fat, their immune response and oxidative status during migration. Our results suggest that animal mutualists require only weak cues to regulate their reward intake according to specific nutritional strategies.
Human disturbance threatens and modifies forest ecosystems worldwide. Previous studies have investigated the effects of human impact on local bird communities in disturbed forests, but we still lack ...information on how bird species richness and ecological processes respond to different forest modifications present at a landscape scale. In a heterogeneous South African landscape, we chose six types of indigenous scarp forest, differing in the intensity of human disturbance: continuous natural forests and natural forest fragments in nature reserves, forest fragments in eucalyptus plantations, fragments in the agricultural matrix, forest gardens and secondary forests in game reserves. In 36 study sites, we investigated the bird community using point counts and observed the seed removal of birds at the native tree species Celtis africana. Species richness did not differ among the forest types, but abundance varied significantly with most birds observed in fragments in the agricultural matrix, forest gardens, and secondary forests. The higher bird abundance in these forests was mainly due to forest generalists, shrubland and open country species whereas forest specialists were rarely present. Changes in species composition were also confirmed by multivariate analysis which clearly separated bird communities by forest type. Frugivore abundance in C. africana was highest in natural forest fragments, fragments in the agricultural matrix, forest gardens and secondary forests. The same trend was found for the estimated total number of fruits removed per C. africana tree, though the differences among forest types were not significant. Consequently, modified forests seem to maintain important ecological functions as they provide food sources for generalist species which may, due to their mobility, enhance natural plant regeneration. However, we could show that protected forest habitats are important refugees for specialist species sensitive to human disturbance.
Megafaunal frugivores can consume large amounts of fruits whose seeds may be dispersed over long distances, thus, affecting plant regeneration processes and ecosystem functioning. We investigated the ...role of brown bears (Ursus arctos) as legitimate megafaunal seed dispersers. We assessed the quantity component of seed dispersal by brown bears across its entire distribution based on information about both the relative frequency of occurrence and species composition of fleshy fruits in the diet of brown bears extracted from the literature. We assessed the quality component of seed dispersal based on germination experiments for 11 fleshy-fruited plant species common in temperate and boreal regions and frequently eaten by brown bears. Across its distribution, fleshy fruits, on average, represented 24% of the bear food items and 26% of the total volume consumed. Brown bears consumed seeds from at least 101 fleshy-fruited plant species belonging to 24 families and 42 genera, of which Rubus (Rosaceae) and Vaccinium (Ericaceae) were most commonly eaten. Brown bears inhabiting Mediterranean forests relied the most on fleshy fruits and consumed the largest number of species per study area. Seeds ingested by bears germinated at higher percentages than those from whole fruits, and at similar percentages than manually depulped seeds. We conclude that brown bears are legitimate seed dispersers as they consume large quantities of seeds that remain viable after gut passage. The decline of these megafaunal frugivores may compromise seed dispersal services and plant regeneration processes.
In tropical forests, herbivorous arthropods remove between 7% up to 48% of leaf area, which has forced plants to evolve defense strategies. These strategies influence the palatability of leaves. ...Palatability, which reflects a syndrome of leaf traits, in turn influences both the abundance and the mean body mass not only of particular arthropod taxa but also of the total communities. In this study, we tested two hypotheses: (H1) The abundance of two important chewer guilds ('leaf chewers' and 'rostrum chewers'), dominant components of arthropod communities, is positively related to the palatability of host trees. (H2) Lower palatability leads to an increased mean body mass of chewers (Jarman-Bell principle). Arthropods were collected by fogging the canopies of 90 tropical trees representing 31 species in three plots at 1000 m and three at 2000 m a.s.l. Palatability was assessed by measuring several 'leaf traits' of each host tree and by conducting a feeding trial with the generalist herbivore Gryllus assimilis (Orthoptera, Gryllidae). Leaf traits provided partial support for H1, as abundance of leaf chewers but not of rostrum chewers was positively affected by the experimentally estimated palatability. There was no support for H2 as neither leaf traits nor experimentally estimated palatability affected the mean body mass of leaf chewers. The mean body mass of rostrum chewers was positively related to palatability. Thus, leaf traits and experimentally estimated palatability influenced the abundance and mean body mass of chewing arthropods on the community level. However, the data were not consistent with the Jarman-Bell principle. Overall, our results suggest that the palatability of leaves is not among the dominant factors influencing abundance and mean body mass of the community of chewing arthropod herbivores. If other factors, such as the microclimate, predation or further (a-)biotic interactions are more important has to be analyzed in refined studies.
Bioturbators shape their environment with considerable consequences for ecosystem processes. However, both the composition and the impact of bioturbator communities may change along climatic ...gradients. For burrowing animals, their abundance and composition depend on climatic and other abiotic components, with ants and mammals dominating in arid and semiarid areas, and earthworms in humid areas. Moreover, the activity of burrowing animals is often positively associated with vegetation cover (biotic component). These observations highlight the need to understand the relative contributions of abiotic and biotic components in bioturbation in order to predict soil-shaping processes along broad climatic gradients. In this study, we estimated the activity of animal bioturbation by counting the density of holes and the quantity of bioturbation based on the volume of soil excavated by bioturbators along a gradient ranging from arid to humid in Chile. We distinguished between invertebrates and vertebrates. Overall, hole density (no/ 100 m2) decreased from arid (raw mean and standard deviation for invertebrates: 14 ± 7.8, vertebrates: 2.8 ± 2.9) to humid (invertebrates: 2.8 ± 3.1, vertebrates: 2.2 ± 2.1) environments. However, excavated soil volume did not follow the same clear geographic trend and was 300-fold larger for vertebrates than for invertebrates. The relationship between bioturbating invertebrates and vegetation cover was consistently negative whereas for vertebrates both, positive and negative relationships were determined along the gradient. Our study demonstrates complex relationships between climate, vegetation and the contribution of bioturbating invertebrates and vertebrates, which will be reflected in their impact on ecosystem functions.
The increasing use of onshore wind energy is leading to an increased deployment of wind turbines in structurally rich habitats such as forests. Forest-affiliated bats, in turn, are at risk of ...colliding with the rotor blades. Due to the legal protection of bats in Europe, it is imperative to restrict the operation of wind turbines to periods of low bat activity to avoid collisions. However, bats have also been observed to avoid wind turbines over several hundred meters distance, indicating a displacement that cannot solely be explained by modifications to the habitat. This avoidance suggests a displacement of bats by indirect factors related to wind turbine operation, e.g., wake turbulences and noise emissions. Therefore, we investigated whether the activity of forest-affiliated bats is influenced by operation mode (on/off) under variable wind conditions along transects from 80 to 450 m distance to wind turbines. We divided recordings by foraging guild, i.e., either narrow-space (Myotis, Plecotus), edge-space (Pipistrellus, Barbastella), or open-space foraging bats (Nyctalus, Eptesicus, Vespertilio), and analyzed the effects of wind turbine operation and wind speed on the recorded bat guild activity with mixed effects models. The acoustic activity of narrow-space foraging bats decreased by 77% with increasing wind speed when wind turbines were operating, while bat activity remained unaffected by wind speed when turbines were not operating. This was neither observed for open-space foraging bats nor for edge-space foraging bats, and neither wind turbine operation nor wind speed (ranging between 0 – 4 m/s at 10 m height above ground) were found to affect bat activity when considered alone. Wind turbine noise emissions are known to increase with rotor speed and consequently, wind speed, thus presenting a likely explanation for the interactive negative effect of turbine operation and wind speed specifically on noise-sensitive narrow-space foraging bats. To understand potential ecological long-term consequences for bat populations in forest areas with wind turbines and to design effective conservation measures, future research should focus on disentangling the effects of different disturbances related to turbine operation.
•Vegetation cover negatively affects activity of the ecological engineer root-rat.•Reciprocally, plant species richness positively affects activity of the giant root-rat.•Livestock grazing modulates ...the ecological engineering role of the giant root-rat.
Subterranean rodents can act as ecosystem engineers by shaping the landscape due to soil perturbation and herbivory. At the same time, their burrow density is affected by environmental conditions, vegetation and anthropogenic factors. Disentangling this complex interplay between subterranean rodents and their environment remains challenging. In our study, we analysed the interplay of abiotic conditions, vegetation patterns and human land-use and the burrow density of the giant root-rat (GRR; Tachyoryctes macrocephalus), a subterranean rodent endemic to the Afroalpine ecosystem of the Bale Mountains in south-east Ethiopia. Specifically, we examined the effects of GRR on plant species richness and vegetation cover and vice-versa, and how these reciprocal effects might be modulated by temperature, habitat wetness and grazing. Our results showed that increasing GRR burrow density led to decreased vegetation cover, and that effects of GRR on vegetation cover were slightly stronger than vice-versa. Considering the reciprocal causation models, we found that increasing plant species richness led to increased GRR burrow density, while GRR burrow density decreased as vegetation cover increased. Increases in habitat wetness and livestock grazing intensity also directly led to increased GRR burrow density. Our results stress the importance of subterranean ecosystem engineers on vegetation and highlight the vulnerability of these complex interactions to human activity.
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