Analyzing the density of impact craters on planetary surfaces is the only known technique for learning their ages remotely. As a result, crater statistics have been widely analyzed on the terrestrial ...planets, since the timing and rates of activity are critical to understanding geologic process and history. On the Moon, the samples obtained by the Apollo and Luna missions provide critical calibration points for cratering chronology. On Mercury, Venus, and Mars, there are no similarly firm anchors for cratering rates, but chronology models have been established by extrapolating from the lunar record or by estimating their impactor fluxes in other ways. This review provides a current perspective on crater population measurements and their chronological interpretation. Emphasis is placed on how ages derived from crater statistics may be contingent on assumptions that need to be considered critically. In addition, ages estimated from crater populations are somewhat different than ages from more familiar geochronology tools (e.g., radiometric dating). Resurfacing processes that remove craters from the observed population are particularly challenging to account for, since they can introduce geologic uncertainty into results or destroy information about the formation age of a surface. Regardless of these challenges, crater statistics measurements have resulted in successful predictions later verified by other techniques, including the age of the lunar maria, the existence of a period of heavy bombardment in the Moon's first billion years, and young volcanism on Mars.
Key Points
The chronology of planetary surfaces is recorded by their impact crater populations
The nature of ages from crater statistics differs in important ways from ages obtained from radiometric measurements of samples
Past successful predictions made using crater statistics illustrate the method's worth; other results are a basis for future predictions
Valley networks, concentrations of dendritic channels that often suggest widespread pluvial and fluvial activity, have been cited as indicators that the climate of Mars differed significantly in the ...past from the present hyperarid cold desert conditions. Some researchers suggest that the change in climate was abrupt, while others favor a much more gradual transition. Thus, the precise timing of valley network formation is critical to understanding the climate history on Mars. We examine thirty valley network-incised regions on Mars, including both cratered upland valley networks and those outside the uplands, and apply a buffered crater counting technique to directly constrain when valley network formation occurred. The crater populations that we derive using this approach allow assessment of the timing of the last activity in a valley network independent of the mapping of specific geological units. From these measurements we find that valley networks cluster into two subdivisions in terms characteristics and age: (1) valley network activity in the cratered highlands has an average cessation age at the Noachian–Hesperian boundary and all valleys that we crater counted are Early Hesperian or older. No evidence is found for valley networks in the cratered uplands of Late Hesperian or Amazonian age. The timing of the cessation of cratered upland valley network activity at the Noachian–Hesperian boundary also corresponds to a decline in the intensity of large crater formation and degradation and to the apparent end of phyllosilicate-type weathering. (2) A few valley network-incised regions formed outside of the cratered uplands on volcanic edifices, in association with younger impact craters, and on the rim of Valles Marineris. We applied our buffered crater counting technique to four such valleys, on the volcanoes Ceraunius Tholus, Hecates Tholus, and Alba Patera and on the rim of Echus Chasma, and find that each has distinctive and different Late Hesperian or Early Amazonian ages, indicating that valley networks formed from time to time in the post-Noachian period. Unlike the cratered upland valley networks, these isolated occurrences are very local and have been interpreted to represent local conditions (e.g., snowpack melted during periods of intrusive volcanic activity). In contrast to a gradual cessation in the formation of valley networks proposed by some workers, our new buffered crater counting results indicate a relatively abrupt cessation in the formation of the widespread cratered upland valley networks at approximately the end of the Noachian, followed only by episodic and very localized valley network formation in later Mars history, very likely due to specific conditions (e.g., local magmatic heating). These valley network ages and correlations are thus consistent with a major change in the near-surface aqueous environment on Mars at approximately the Noachian–Hesperian boundary. The Noachian environment supported surface running water and fluvial erosion across Mars in the cratered uplands, enhanced crater degradation, and a weathering environment favoring the formation of phyllosilicates. The Hesperian–Amazonian environment was more similar to the hyperarid cold desert of today, with valley networks forming only extremely rarely and confined to localized special conditions. Sources of water for these latter occurrences are likely to be related to periodic mobilization and equatorward migration of polar volatiles due to variations in spin-axis orbital parameters, and to periodic catastrophic emergence of groundwater.
We examine the stratigraphic architecture and mineralogy of the western fan deposit in the Jezero crater paleolake on Mars to reassess whether this fan formed as a delta in a standing body of water, ...as opposed to by alluvial or debris flow processes. Analysis of topography and images reveals that the stratigraphically lowest layers within the fan have shallow dips (<2°), consistent with deltaic bottomsets, whereas overlying strata exhibit steeper dips (∼2–9°) and downlap, consistent with delta foresets. Strong clay mineral signatures (Fe/Mg-smectite) are identified in the inferred bottomsets, as would be expected in the distal fine-grained facies of a delta. We conclude that the Jezero crater western fan deposit is deltaic in origin based on the exposed stratal geometries and mineralogy, and we emphasize the importance of examining the stratigraphic architecture of sedimentary fan deposits on Mars to confidently distinguish between alluvial fans and deltas. Our results indicate that Jezero crater contains exceptionally well-preserved fluvio-deltaic stratigraphy, including strata interpreted as fine-grained deltaic bottomsets that would have had a high potential to concentrate and preserve organic matter. Future exploration of this site is both geologically and astrobiologically compelling, and in situ analyses would be complementary to the ongoing in situ characterization of fluvio-lacustrine sediment in the Gale crater paleolake basin by the Curiosity rover.
•We analyze the stratigraphic architecture and mineralogy of the Jezero crater western fan.•Stratal geometries and the distribution of Fe/Mg-smectite indicate the fan is a delta deposit.•This deposit is highly compelling for future in situ exploration, such as by the Mars 2020 rover.
► The timing of distinct characteristics and conditions on early Mars is explored. ► Hellas formed, followed by Isidis and Argyre; all likely post-date the Mars dynamo. ► Valley network activity ...post-dates these impact basins, possibly by 100s of Myr. ► Neutral-pH alteration may not be temporally linked to LN/EH valley formation.
The geological record of early Mars displays a variety of features that indicate fundamental differences from more recent conditions. These include evidence for: (1) widespread aqueous alteration and phyllosilicate formation, (2) the existence of an active magnetic dynamo, (3) the erosion of extensive valley networks, some thousands of kilometers long, (4) a much more significant role of impact cratering, forming structures up to the scale of large basins, and (5) the construction of much of the Tharsis volcanic province. Mars also is likely to have had a much thicker atmosphere during this early period. We discuss and review the temporal relationships among these processes and conditions. Key observations from this analysis suggest the following: (1) the last large impact basins, Argyre, Isidis, and Hellas, all pre-date the end of valley network formation, potentially by several hundred million years, (2) the magnetic dynamo is likely to be ancient (pre-Hellas), since the center of Hellas and other young basins lack magnetic remanence, and (3) the period of phyllosilicate formation is not readily connected to the period of valley network formation. Concepts for the possible formation and evolution of life on Mars should address this time sequence of conditions.
Landscape evolution on the Moon is dominated by impact cratering in the post‐maria period. In this study, we mapped 800 m to 5 km diameter craters on >30% of the lunar maria and extracted their ...topographic profiles from digital terrain models created using the Kaguya Terrain Camera. We then characterized the degradation of these craters using a topographic diffusion model. Because craters have a well‐understood initial morphometry, these data provide insight into erosion on the Moon and the topographic diffusivity of the lunar surface as a function of time. The average diffusivity we calculate over the past 3 Ga is ~5.5 m2/Myr. With this diffusivity, after 3 Ga, a 1 km diameter crater is reduced to approximately ~52% of its initial depth and a 300 m diameter crater is reduced to only ~7% of its initial depth, and craters smaller than ~200–300 m are degraded beyond recognition. Our results also allow estimation of the age of individual craters on the basis of their degradation state, provide a constraint on the age of mare units, and enable modeling of how lunar terrain evolves as a function of its topography.
Key Points
Lunar crater degradation can be treated as a topographic diffusion problemDegradation state can be used to estimate the age of individual cratersThe mean diffusivity of the Moon's surface over the last 3 Ga is ~5.5 m2/Myr
A new catalog of 210 open-basin lakes (lakes with outlet valleys) fed by valley networks shows that they are widely distributed in the Noachian uplands of Mars. In order for an outlet valley to form, ...water must have ponded in the basin to at least the level of the outlet. We use this relationship and the present topography to directly estimate the minimum amount of water necessary to flood these basins in the past. The volumes derived for the largest lakes (
∼
3
×
10
4
to
∼
2
×
10
5
km
3
) are comparable to the largest lakes and small seas on modern Earth, such as the Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and Lake Baikal. We determine a variety of other morphometric properties of these lakes and their catchments (lake area, mean depth, volume, shoreline development, outlet elevation, and watershed area). Most candidate lakes have volumes proportional to and commensurate with their watershed area, consistent with precipitation as their primary source. However, other lakes have volumes that are anomalously large relative to their watershed areas, implying that groundwater may have been important in their filling. Candidate groundwater-sourced lakes are generally concentrated in the Arabia Terra region but also include the Eridania basin Irwin, R.P., Howard, A.D., Maxwell, T.A., 2004a. J. Geophys. Res. 109, doi:
10.1029/2004JE002287. E12009; Irwin, R.P., Watters, T.R., Howard, A.D. Zimbelman, J.R., 2004b. J. Geophys. Res. 109, doi:
10.1029/2004JE002248. E09011 and several lakes near the dichotomy boundary. This areal distribution is broadly consistent with where groundwater should have reached the surface as predicted by current models. Both surface runoff and groundwater flow appear to have been important sources for lakes and lake chains, suggesting a vertically integrated hydrological system, the absence of a global cryosphere, and direct communication between the surface and subsurface hydrosphere of early Mars.
Small craters of the lunar maria are observed to be in a state of equilibrium, in which the rate of production of new craters is, on average, equal to the rate of destruction of old craters. Crater ...counts of multiple lunar terrains over decades consistently show that the equilibrium cumulative size-frequency distribution (SFD) per unit area of small craters of radius >r is proportional r−2, and that the total crater density is a few percent of so-called geometric saturation, which is the maximum theoretical packing density of circular features. While it has long been known that the primary crater destruction mechanism for these small craters is steady diffusive degradation, there are few quantitative constraints on the processes that determine the degradation rate of meter to kilometer scale lunar surface features. Here we combine analytical modeling with a Monte Carlo landscape evolution code known as the Cratered Terrain Evolution Model to place constraints on which processes control the observed equilibrium size-frequency distribution for small craters. We find that the impacts by small distal ejecta fragments, distributed in spatially heterogeneous rays, is the largest contributor to the diffusive degradation which controls the equilibrium SFD of small craters. Other degradation or crater removal mechanisms, such cookie cutting, ejecta burial, seismic shaking, and micrometeoroid bombardment, likely contribute very little to the diffusive topographic degradation of the lunar maria at the meter scale and larger.
•New analytical and numerical models show why the number of countable lunar craters reaches a certain limit.•The lunar surface is shaped by the creation of very long crater rays in a surprisingly strong way.•The soft appearance of the lunar surface is a result of numerous tiny impacts of ejecta fragments from distant craters.
In this study, 96 digital terrain models (DTMs) of Mercury were created using the Ames Stereo Pipeline, using 1456 pairs of stereo images from the Mercury Dual Imaging System instrument on MESSENGER. ...Although these DTMs cover only ~1% of the surface of Mercury, they enable three-dimensional characterization of landforms at horizontal resolutions of ~50–250m/pixel and vertical accuracy of tens of meters. This is valuable in regions where the more precise measurements from the Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) are sparse. MLA measurements nonetheless provide an important geodetic framework for the derived stereo products. These DTMs, which are publicly released in conjunction with this paper, reveal topography of features at relatively small scales, including craters, graben, hollows, pits, scarps, and wrinkle ridges. Measurements from these data indicate that: (1) hollows have a median depth of ~32m, in basic agreement with earlier shadow measurement, (2) some of the deep pits (up to ~4km deep) that are interpreted to form via volcanic processes on Mercury have surrounding rims or rises, but others do not, and (3) some pits have two or more distinct, low-lying interior minima that could represent multiple vents.
•96 stereo digital terrain models (DTMs) of Mercury were created.•These DTMs reveal the median depth of hollows, ~34m.•Volcanic pits, up to ~4km in depth, are sometimes surrounded by rims or rises.•Volcanic pits have multiple minima, indicative of multiple discrete vents.
•We study the geometry and architecture of Jezero crater western delta stratigraphy.•Delta exposes point bar strata, inverted channel bodies, and a late stage valley.•Channel deposits primarily ...record filling of the basin and shoreline transgression.•Point bar strata consistent with regional flooding at annual to decadal timescales.•Delta records crater filling to overtopping without major drops in lake level.
The Jezero crater open-basin lake contains two well-exposed fluvial sedimentary deposits formed early in martian history. Here, we examine the geometry and architecture of the Jezero western delta fluvial stratigraphy using high-resolution orbital images and digital elevation models (DEMs). The goal of this analysis is to reconstruct the evolution of the delta and associated shoreline position. The delta outcrop contains three distinct classes of fluvial stratigraphy that we interpret, from oldest to youngest, as: (1) point bar strata deposited by repeated flood events in meandering channels; (2) inverted channel-filling deposits formed by avulsive distributary channels; and (3) a valley that incises the deposit. We use DEMs to quantify the geometry of the channel deposits and estimate flow depths of ∼7 m for the meandering channels and ∼2 m for the avulsive distributary channels. Using these estimates, we employ a novel approach for assessing paleohydrology of the formative channels in relative terms. This analysis indicates that the shift from meandering to avulsive distributary channels was associated with an approximately four-fold decrease in the water to sediment discharge ratio. We use observations of the fluvial stratigraphy and channel paleohydrology to propose a model for the evolution of the Jezero western delta. The delta stratigraphy records lake level rise and shoreline transgression associated with approximately continuous filling of the basin, followed by outlet breaching, and eventual erosion of the delta. Our results imply a martian surface environment during the period of delta formation that supplied sufficient surface runoff to fill the Jezero basin without major drops in lake level, but also with discrete flooding events at non-orbital (e.g., annual to decadal) timescales.
The most heavily cratered terrains on Mercury have been estimated to be about 4 billion years (Gyr) old, but this was based on images of only about 45 per cent of the surface; even older regions ...could have existed in the unobserved portion. These terrains have a lower density of craters less than 100 km in diameter than does the Moon, an observation attributed to preferential resurfacing on Mercury. Here we report global crater statistics of Mercury's most heavily cratered terrains on the entire surface. Applying a recent model for early lunar crater chronology and an updated dynamical extrapolation to Mercury, we find that the oldest surfaces were emplaced just after the start of the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) about 4.0-4.1 Gyr ago. Mercury's global record of large impact basins, which has hitherto not been dated, yields a similar surface age. This agreement implies that resurfacing was global and was due to volcanism, as previously suggested. This activity ended during the tail of the LHB, within about 300-400 million years after the emplacement of the oldest terrains on Mercury. These findings suggest that persistent volcanism could have been aided by the surge of basin-scale impacts during this bombardment.
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