•We use surveys of husbands and wives in Tanzania to explore rural household decision-making.•We find perceptions of household decision-making authority differ depending on the spouse asked.•Factors ...associated with a wife’s authority include age, education, health, children, and labor hours.•The allocation of intra-household authority also varies across thirteen different decision questions.•A lack of “intra-household accord” over authority may be a barrier to empowerment efforts.
We use OLS and logistic regression to investigate variation in husband and wife perspectives on the division of authority over agriculture-related decisions within households in rural Tanzania. Using original data from husbands and wives (interviewed separately) in 1,851 Tanzanian households, the analysis examines differences in the wife’s authority over 13 household and farming decisions. The study finds that the level of decision-making authority allocated to wives by their husbands, and the authority allocated by wives to themselves, both vary significantly across households. In addition to commonly considered assets such as women’s age and education, in rural agricultural households women’s health and labor activities also appear to matter for perceptions of authority. We also find husbands and wives interviewed separately frequently disagree with each other over who holds authority over key farming, family, and livelihood decisions. Further, the results of OLS and logistic regression suggest that even after controlling for various individual, household, and regional characteristics, husband and wife claims to decision-making authority continue to vary systematically by decision—suggesting that decision characteristics themselves also matter. The absence of spousal agreement over the allocation of authority (i.e., a lack of “intra-household accord”) over different farm and household decisions is problematic for interventions seeking to use survey data to develop and inform strategies for reducing gender inequalities or empowering women in rural agricultural households. Findings provide policy and program insights into when studies interviewing only a single spouse or considering only a single decision may inaccurately characterize intra-household decision-making dynamics.
This paper examines ethnic diversity and local public goods in rural western Kenya. The identification strategy relies on the stable historically determined patterns of ethnic land settlement. Ethnic ...diversity is associated with lower primary school funding and worse school facilities, and there is suggestive evidence that it leads to poor water well maintenance. The theoretical model illustrates how inability to impose social sanctions in diverse communities leads to collective action failures, and we find that school committees in diverse areas do impose fewer sanctions on defaulting parents. We relate these results to the literature on social capital and economic development and discuss implications for decentralization in less developed countries.
This article examines one reason why individuals develop and maintain local‐level financial savings organizations known as rotating savings and credit organizations, or Roscas. Economic theories ...suggest that individuals form Roscas to finance the purchase of a lumpy durable good, in response to intrahousehold conflict over savings, or to provide themselves with insurance. The article proposes an additional hypothesis for Rosca participation: saving requires discipline, and some Roscas may be formed to provide a collective mechanism for commitment in the presence of time‐inconsistent preferences. Data from 70 Roscas located in western Kenya indicate that the commitment hypothesis is plausible and broadly consistent with the design and patterns of participation in these Roscas. As many Rosca participants put it, “You can’t save alone.”
Research on the determinants of foreign aid tends to focus on the relationship between donor country priorities and recipient state characteristics, but donors also make decisions about which ...organizations and programs within countries will receive assistance. Although NGOs increasingly have been recipients of foreign aid, few data are available to investigate which organizations within a given country receive that funding. Donors may prioritize structural characteristics of NGOs or their local ties—or they may seek a combination that blends concern about efficiency and accountability with an interest in developing national civil society. We use original data from Cambodia to explore whether aid is likely to go to managerial organizations (professionalized NGOs and NGOs that utilize modern management tools) or to organizations that are embedded in the domestic context. We argue that managerialism provides legitimacy for NGOs by signaling capacity and accountability to donors, increasing the likelihood of government funding. We argue that local embeddedness also confers legitimacy by aligning community ties and networks to rights-based development, increasing the likelihood of government funding. We find general support for the managerialism argument, but donor agencies do not prioritize direct funding for "indigenous" NGOs—not even among those with high levels of managerialism. Les recherches sur les déterminants de l'aide étrangère ont tendance à se concentrer sur la relation entre les priorités des pays donateurs et les caractéristiques des États bénéficiaires, tandis que les donateurs prennent aussi des décisions sur les organismes et les programmes des pays qui recevront une assistance. Bien que les ONG soient de plus en plus bénéficiaires de l'aide étrangère, peu d'informations sont disponibles pour déterminer quelles organisations dans un pays donné reçoivent ce financement. Les donateurs peuvent accorder la priorité aux caractéristiques structurelles des ONG ou à leurs liens locaux, ou chercher une combinaison qui allie l'efficacité et la responsabilité qui présentent un intérêt pour le développement de la société civile nationale. Nous utilisons les données originales du Cambodge pour étudier si l'aide a tendance à être consacrée à des organismes gestionnaires (les ONG professionnalisées et les ONG qui utilisent des outils modernes de gestion) ou à des organisations qui sont intégrées dans un contexte national. Nous montrons que le managérialisme donne une légitimité aux ONG en indiquant leur capacité et leur responsabilité aux donateurs, ce qui augmente la probabilité de financements publics. Nous affirmons que l'implantation locale confère également une légitimité en harmonisant les liens communautaires et les réseaux avec le développement axé sur les droits, ce qui augmente aussi la probabilité de financements publics. Nous constatons un soutien général pour l'argument du managérialisme, mais les organismes donateurs ne donnent pas la priorité des financements directs aux ONG « indigènes » — pas même parmi celles dotées de niveaux élevés de managérialisme. Forschungsarbeiten zu den Einflussfaktoren für ausländische Hilfe konzentrieren sich in der Regel auf die Beziehung zwischen den Prioritäten des Spenderlandes und den Merkmalen des Empfängerlandes; doch treffen Spender auch Entscheidungen darüber, welche Organisationen und Programme innerhalb eines Landes Unterstützung erhalten. Obwohl nicht-staatliche Organisationen zunehmend zu den Empfängern ausländischer Hilfe zählen, stehen nur wenige Daten zur Verfügung, anhand derer untersucht werden kann, welche Organisationen innerhalb des jeweiligen Landes die Geldmittel erhalten. Spender priorisieren unter Umständen nach strukturellen Merkmalen der nicht-staatlichen Organisationen oder ihren lokalen Verbindungen - oder sie suchen eine Kombination, die die Frage der Effizienz und Rechenschaft mit einem Interesse an der Entwicklung einer nationalen Bürgergesellschaft vereint. Wir stützen uns auf Originaldaten aus Kambodscha, um zu untersuchen, ob Hilfeleistungen aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach an managerhaften Organisationen (professionalisierte nicht-staatliche Organisationen und nicht-staatliche Organisationen, die moderne Management-Tools anwenden) oder an Organisationen geht, die im inländischen Kontext integriert sind. Wir behaupten, dass der Managerialismus den nicht-staatlichen Organisationen zur Legitimität verhilft, indem er Spendern Kapazität und Rechenschaft signalisiert, was die Wahrscheinlichkeit für eine staatliche finanzielle Unterstützung erhöht. Wir behaupten weiterhin, dass auch die lokale Integration Legitimität verleiht, indem sie Gemeindeverbindungen und Netzwerke an eine rechtsbasierende Entwicklung angleicht, was ebenfalls die Wahrscheinlichkeit für eine staatliche finanzielle Unterstützung erhöht. Wir sehen allgemeine Belege für das Managerialismus-Argument; doch die Spenderinstitutionen geben direkten Mitteln an „einheimische“ nicht-staatliche Organisationen keine Priorität - auch nicht, wenn die Organisationen ein hohes Maß an Managerialimus aufweisen. La investigación sobre los determinantes de la ayuda extranjera tiende a centrarse en la relación entre las prioridades del país donante y las características estatales del receptor, pero los donantes también toman decisiones sobre qué organizaciones y programas dentro de los países recibirán asistencia. Aunque las ONG han sido receptoras cada vez más de la ayuda extranjera, hay disponibles pocos datos para investigar qué organizaciones dentro de un país dado reciben qué financiación. Los donantes pueden priorizar las características estructurales de las ONG o sus lazos locales - o pueden buscar una combinación que aúne la preocupación sobre la eficiencia y la responsabilidad con un interés en desarrollar la sociedad civil nacional. Utilizamos datos originales de Camboya para explorar si es probable que la ayuda vaya a organizaciones gerenciales (ONG profesionalizadas y ONG que utilizan herramientas de gestión modernas) o a organizaciones que estén arraigadas en el contexto doméstico. Argumentamos que el gerencialismo proporciona legitimidad a las ONG señalando su capacidad y responsabilidad ante los donantes, aumentando la probabilidad de financiación gubernamental. Argumentamos que el arraigo local confiere también legitimidad alineando los lazos comunitarios y las redes al desarrollo basado en derechos, aumentando la probabilidad de financiación gubernamental. Encontramos un apoyo general al argumento del gerencialismo, pero las agencias donantes no priorizan la financiación directa para ONG "indígenas" - incluso entre aquellas con niveles elevados de gerencialismo.
Advocacy organizations are viewed as actors motivated primarily by principled beliefs. This volume outlines a new agenda for the study of advocacy organizations, proposing a model of NGOs as ...collective actors that seek to fulfil normative concerns and instrumental incentives, face collective action problems, and compete as well as collaborate with other advocacy actors. The analogy of the firm is a useful way of studying advocacy actors because individuals, via advocacy NGOs, make choices which are analytically similar to those that shareholders make in the context of firms. The authors view advocacy NGOs as special types of firms that make strategic choices in policy markets which, along with creating public goods, support organizational survival, visibility, and growth. Advocacy NGOs' strategy can therefore be understood as a response to opportunities to supply distinct advocacy products to well-defined constituencies, as well as a response to normative or principled concerns.
Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) is a complication of Schistosoma haematobium infection, and imposes a health burden whose magnitude is not fully explored. It is estimated that up to 56 million ...women in sub-Saharan Africa have FGS, and almost 20 million more cases will occur in the next decade unless infected girls are treated. Schistosomiasis is reported throughout the year in South Africa in areas known to be endemic, but there is no control programme. We analyze five actions for both a better understanding of the burden of FGS and reducing its prevalence in Africa, namely: (1) schistosomiasis prevention by establishing a formal control programme and increasing access to treatment, (2) introducing FGS screening, (3) providing knowledge to health care workers and communities, (4) vector control, and (5) water, sanitation, and hygiene. Schistosomiasis is focal in South Africa, with most localities moderately affected (prevalence between 10% and 50%), and some pockets that are high risk (more than 50% prevalence). However, in order to progress towards elimination, the five actions are yet to be implemented in addition to the current (and only) control strategy of case-by-case treatment. The main challenge that South Africa faces is a lack of access to WHO-accredited donated medication for mass drug administration. The establishment of a formal and funded programme would address these issues and begin the implementation of the recommended actions.
BackgroundIn an era of global health security challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic, there is greater need for strong leadership. Over the past decades, significant investments have been made in ...global health leadership development programs by governments and philanthropic organizations to address this need. Evaluating the societal impact of these programs remains challenging, despite consensus on the importance of public health leadership. ObjectiveThis article identifies the gaps and highlights the critical role of monitoring and evaluation approaches in assessing the impact of global health leadership programs. Importantly, we also propose the theory of change (TOC) as a common framework and identify a set of tools and indicators that leadership programs can adapt and use. MethodsWe carried out an informal review of major global health leadership programs, including a literature review on leadership program evaluation approaches. Current practices in assessing the short- to long-term outcomes of leadership training programs were explored and synthesized. We also examined use of program theory frameworks, such as theory of change to guide the evaluation strategy. We find the TOC approach can be enhanced by integrating evaluation-specific frameworks and establishing broad stakeholder buy-in. We highlight measurement challenges, proposed outcome indicators and evaluation methodologies, and outline the future direction for such efforts. FindingsMost evaluation of current leadership programs is focused on short-term individual-level outcomes, while reports on long-term societal impact were limited. Reciprocal impacts on and benefits for the "host" organizations were not included in evaluation metrics. Most programs had program logic or result chains, but with no well-articulated program theories. ConclusionKey stakeholders involved in leadership training programs benefit from the evidence of rigorous program evaluations to inform decisions that address barriers in fostering global health leadership and improving population health outcomes. Insight into reciprocal change in host organizations is important. Evaluation of global health leadership training must go beyond the individual trainee and encompass organizational and community-level impacts. Documentation of long-lasting organizational and societal impacts is essential for donors to appreciate the return on their investment. Key TakeawaysEvaluation plays an important role in understanding how leadership development takes place and how it contributes to improving public health outcomes.Making the case for investments in leadership development programs requires robust evidence from monitoring and evaluation strategies that link investments beyond the individual-level to longer-term societal impacts.The first critical step towards a strategy for success is for leadership programs to clearly build, articulate, share, and use their program theories or theories of change.Theories of change help identify the pathways (and potential tensions) through which leadership development programs effect change at the individual, organizational and community levels.Evaluation methods that examine outcomes of leadership programs should be multi-method, multi-level, and where possible include counterfactual outcomes.Allocation of funds to evaluate on-going and long-lasting societal impact of leadership programs should be a routine practice.
This article examines the structure of nonprofit voluntary accountability and standard-setting programs, arguing that these programs can be understood as collective action institutions designed to ...address information asymmetries between nonprofits and their stakeholders. Club theory and the economics of certification suggest that such programs have the potential to provide a signal of quality by setting high standards and fees and rigorously verifying compliance. Such mechanisms can signal quality because higher participation costs may allow only high-quality organizations to join. The article examines the implications of signaling theory using an original dataset on the structure of 32 non-profit accountability programs across the globe. While many programs set high standards for compliance, the key distinction between strong and weak programs is the use of disclosure or verification mechanisms to enforce compliance. Contrary to theoretical expectations, compliance standards and verification do not appear to be substitutes in creating stronger voluntary programs.
In this article we examine how information problems can cause agency slippages and lead to governance failures in nonprofit organizations. Drawing on the principal–agent literature, we provide a ...theoretical account of an institutional mechanism, namely, voluntary regulation programs, to mitigate such slippages. These programs seek to impose obligations on their participants regarding internal governance and use of resources. By joining these programs, nonprofit organizations seek to differentiate themselves from nonparticipants and signal to their principals that they are deploying resources as per the organizational mandate. If principals are assured that agency slippages are lower in program participants, they might be more likely to provide the participants with resources to deliver goods and services to their target populations. However, regulatory programs for nonprofit organizations are of variable quality and, in some cases, could be designed to obscure rather than reveal information. We outline an analytical framework to differentiate the credible clubs from the “charity washes.” A focus on the institutional architecture of these programs can help to predict their efficacy in reducing agency problems.
This article examines the evolution of NGO self-regulation in Africa from 1990 through 2009 using cross-national data on 22 countries and more detailed case studies of 6 initiatives. The article uses ...collective action theory to characterize self-regulation as a collective endeavor in which organizations must find ways to develop and maintain common standards and mechanisms for monitoring and oversight. The article argues that self-regulation in Africa has unfolded in two generations. The first generation was a response to perceived threats of increased government regulation and resulted in systems of self-regulation that are national in scope and intend to produce a public good: national regulation. Second generation initiatives occurred in more liberal political environments; as a result, these second-generation initiatives often operate as a complement or supplement to government regulation. Second-generation self-regulation programs tend to have stronger standards and enforcement, but more limited organizational coverage, producing a private collective good for those nonprofits that are able to participate.
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