Context. VX Sgr is a cool, evolved, and luminous red star whose stellar parameters are difficult to determine, which affects its classification.
Aims. We aim to spatially resolve the photospheric ...extent as well as the circumstellar environment.
Methods. We used interferometric observations obtained with the MATISSE instrument in the L (3–4 μm), M (4.5–5 μm), and N (8–13 μm) bands. We reconstructed monochromatic images using the MIRA software. We used 3D radiation-hydrodynamics simulations carried out with CO5BOLD and a uniform disc model to estimate the apparent diameter and interpret the stellar surface structures. Moreover, we employed the radiative transfer codes OPTIM3D and RADMC3D to compute the spectral energy distribution for the L, M, and N bands, respectively.
Results. MATISSE observations unveil, for the first time, the morphology of VX Sgr across the L, M, and N bands. The reconstructed images show a complex morphology with brighter areas whose characteristics depend on the wavelength probed. We measured the angular diameter as a function of the wavelength and showed that the photospheric extent in the L and M bands depends on the opacity through the atmosphere. In addition to this, we also concluded that the observed photospheric inhomogeneities can be interpreted as convection-related surface structures. The comparison in the N band yielded a qualitative agreement between the N-band spectrum and simple dust radiative transfer simulations. However, it is not possible to firmly conclude on the interpretation of the current data because of the difficulty in constraing the model parameters using the limited accuracy of our absolute flux calibration.
Conclusions. MATISSE observations and the derived reconstructed images unveil the appearance of VX Sgr’s stellar surface and circumstellar environment across a very large spectral domain for the first time.
We used the near-IR imager/spectrograph LUCIFER mounted on the Large Binocular Telescope to image, with subarcsecond seeing, the local dwarf starburst NGC 1569 in the JHK bands and He I 1.08 Delta ...*mm, Fe II 1.64 Delta *mm, and Br Delta *g narrowband filters. We obtained high-quality spatial maps of He I 1.08 Delta *mm, Fe II 1.64 Delta *mm, and Br Delta *g emission across the galaxy, and used them together with Hubble Space Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys images of NGC 1569 in the H Delta *a filter to derive the two-dimensional spatial map of the dust extinction and surface star formation rate (SFR) density. We show that dust extinction (as derived from the H Delta *a/Br Delta *g flux ratio) is rather patchy and, on average, higher in the northwest (NW) portion of the galaxy (E g(B -- V) 0.71 mag) than in the southeast (E g(B -- V) 0.57 mag). Similarly, the surface density of SFR (computed from either the dereddened H Delta *a or dereddened Br Delta *g image) peaks in the NW region of NGC 1569, reaching a value of about 4 X 10--6 M yr--1 pc--2. The total SFR as estimated from the integrated, dereddened H Delta *a (or, alternatively, Br Delta *g) luminosity is about 0.4 M yr--1, and the total supernova rate from the integrated, dereddened Fe II 1.64 Delta *mm luminosity is about 0.005 yr--1 (assuming a distance of 3.36 Mpc). The azimuthally averaged Fe II 1.64 Delta *mm/Br Delta *g flux ratio is larger at the edges of the central, gas-deficient cavities (encompassing the superstar clusters A and B) and in the galaxy outskirts. If we interpret this line ratio as the ratio between the average past star formation (as traced by supernovae) and ongoing activity (represented by OB stars able to ionize the interstellar medium), it would then indicate that star formation has been quenched within the central cavities and lately triggered in a ring around them. The number of ionizing hydrogen and helium photons as computed from the integrated, dereddened H Delta *a and He I 1.08 Delta *mm luminosities suggests that the latest burst of star formation occurred about 4 Myr ago and produced new stars with a total mass of 1.8 X 106 M .
The dusty heart of Circinus Isbell, J. W.; Meisenheimer, K.; Pott, J.-U. ...
Astronomy and astrophysics (Berlin),
07/2022, Volume:
663
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
Context.
Active galactic nuclei play a key role in the evolution of galaxies, but their inner workings and physical connection to the host are poorly understood due to a lack of angular resolution. ...Infrared interferometry makes it possible to resolve the circumnuclear dust in the nearby Seyfert 2 galaxy, the Circinus Galaxy. Previous observations have revealed complex structures and polar dust emission but interpretation was limited to simple models. The new Multi AperTure mid-Infrared Spectro-Scopic Experiment (MATISSE) makes it possible to image these structures for the first time.
Aims.
We aim to precisely map the morphology and temperature of the dust surrounding the supermassive black hole through interferometric imaging.
Methods.
We observed the Circinus Galaxy with MATISSE at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), producing 150 correlated flux spectra and 100 closure phase spectra. The novel inclusion of closure phases makes interferometric imaging possible for the first time. We reconstructed images in the
N
-band at ∼10 mas resolution. We fit blackbody functions with dust extinction to several aperture-extracted fluxes from the images to produce a temperature distribution of central dusty structures.
Results.
We find significant substructure in the circumnuclear dust: central unresolved flux of ∼0.5 Jy, a thin disk 1.9 pc in diameter oriented along ∼45°, and a ∼4 × 1.5 pc polar emission extending orthogonal to the disk. The polar emission exhibits patchiness, which we attribute to clumpy dust. Flux enhancements to the east and west of the disk are seen for the first time. We distinguish the temperature profiles of the disk and of the polar emission: the disk shows a steep temperature gradient indicative of denser material; the polar profile is flatter, indicating clumpiness and/or lower dust density. The unresolved flux is fitted with a high temperature, ∼370 K. The polar dust remains warm (∼200 K) out to 1.5 pc from the disk. We attribute approximately 60% of the 12 μm flux to the polar dust, 10% to the disk, and 6% is unresolved; the remaining flux was resolved out. The recovered morphology and temperature distribution resembles modeling of accretion disks with radiation-driven winds at large scales, but we placed new constraints on the subparsec dust.
Conclusions.
The spatially resolved subparsec features imaged here place new constraints on the physical modeling of circumnuclear dust in active galaxies; we show strong evidence that the polar emission consists of dust clumps or filaments. The dynamics of the structures and their role in the Unified Model remain to be explored.
Context.
Optical interferometry is at a key development stage. The Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) has established a stable, robust infrastructure for long-baseline interferometry that is ...usable by general astronomical observers. The present second-generation instruments offer a wide wavelength coverage and improved performance. Their sensitivity and measurement accuracy lead to data and images of high reliability.
Aims.
We have developed the Multi AperTure mid-Infrared SpectroScopic Experiment (MATISSE) to access, for the first time, high resolution imaging in a wide spectral domain. Many front-line topics are explored with this new equipment, including: stellar activity and mass loss; planet formation and evolution in the gas and dust disks around young stars; and environment interaction and accretion processes around super massive black holes in active galactic nuclei.
Methods.
The instrument is a spectro-interferometric imager in the transmission windows called
L
,
M
, and
N
, from 2.8 to 13.0 microns, combining four optical beams from the VLTI’s unit or auxiliary telescopes. Its concept, related observing procedure, data reduction, and calibration approach, is the product of 30 years of instrumental research and has benefitted from the expertise developed in the frame of the VLTI’s first generation instruments. The instrument utilises a multi-axial beam combination that delivers spectrally dispersed fringes. The signal provides the following quantities at several spectral resolutions: photometric flux, coherent fluxes, visibilities, closure phases, wavelength differential visibilities and phases, and aperture-synthesis imaging.
Results.
This article provides an overview of the physical principle of the instrument and its functionalities. The motivation of the choice of the instrumental concept and the characteristics of the delivered signal are detailed with a description of the observing modes and of their performance limit. MATISSE offers four spectral resolutions in
L
&
M
bands, namely 30, 500, 1000 and 3400, and 30 and 220 in the
N
band, and it provides an angular resolution down to 3 mas for the shortest wavelengths. The MATISSE stand-alone sensitivity limits are 60 mJy in
L
and 300 mJy in
N
. The paper gives details of the sensitivity limits for the different measurables and their related precision criteria, considering telescope configurations and spectral resolutions. We also discuss the gain provided with the GRA4MAT fringe tracker. An ensemble of data and reconstructed images illustrate the first acquired key observations.
Conclusions.
The instrument has been in operation at Cerro Paranal, ESO, Chile, since 2018, and has been open for science use by the international community since April 2019. The first scientific results are being published now.
Context.A complex environment exists in the inner few astronomical units of planet-forming disks. High-angular-resolution observa-tions play a key role in our understanding of the disk structure and ...the dynamical processes at work.Aims.In this study we aim to characterize the mid-infrared brightness distribution of the inner disk of the young intermediate-massstar HD 163296 from early VLTI/MATISSE observations taken in theL- andN-bands. We put special emphasis on the detection ofpotential disk asymmetries.Methods.We use simple geometric models to fit the interferometric visibilities and closure phases. Our models include a smoothedring, a flat disk with an inner cavity, and a 2D Gaussian. The models can account for disk inclination and for azimuthal asymmetriesas well. We also perform numerical hydrodynamical simulations of the inner edge of the disk.Results.Our modeling reveals a significant brightness asymmetry in theL-band disk emission. The brightness maximum of the asym-metry is located at the NW part of the disk image, nearly at the position angle of the semimajor axis. The surface brightness ratio inthe azimuthal variation is3.5±0.2. Comparing our result on the location of the asymmetry with other interferometric measurements,we confirm that the morphology of ther<0.3au disk region is time-variable. We propose that this asymmetric structure, located in ornear the inner rim of the dusty disk, orbits the star. To find the physical origin of the asymmetry, we tested a hypothesis where a vortexis created by Rossby wave instability, and we find that a unique large-scale vortex may be compatible with our data. The half-lightradius of theL-band-emitting region is0.33±0.01au, the inclination is52◦+5◦−7◦, and the position angle is143◦±3◦. Our models predictthat a non-negligible fraction of theL-band disk emission originates inside the dust sublimation radius forμm-sized grains. Refractorygrains or large (&10μm-sized) grains could be the origin of this emission.N-band observations may also support a lack of smallsilicate grains in the innermost disk (r.0.6au), in agreement with our findings fromL-band data.
Using a sample of high-redshift lensed quasars from the CASTLES project with observed-frame ultraviolet or optical and near-infrared spectra, we have searched for possible biases between supermassive ...black hole (BH) mass estimates based on the C IV, H Delta *a, and H Delta *b broad emission lines. Our sample is based upon that of Greene, Peng, & Ludwig, expanded with new near-IR spectroscopic observations, consistently analyzed high signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) optical spectra, and consistent continuum luminosity estimates at 5100 A. We find that BH mass estimates based on the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of C IV show a systematic offset with respect to those obtained from the line dispersion, Delta *s l , of the same emission line, but not with those obtained from the FWHM of H Delta *a and H Delta *b. The magnitude of the offset depends on the treatment of the He II and Fe II emission blended with C IV, but there is little scatter for any fixed measurement prescription. While we otherwise find no systematic offsets between C IV and Balmer line mass estimates, we do find that the residuals between them are strongly correlated with the ratio of the UV and optical continuum luminosities. This means that much of the dispersion in previous comparisons of C IV and H Delta *b BH mass estimates are due to the continuum luminosities rather than to any properties of the lines. Removing this dependency reduces the scatter between the UV- and optical-based BH mass estimates by a factor of approximately two, from roughly 0.35 to 0.18 dex. The dispersion is smallest when comparing the C IV Delta *s l mass estimate, after removing the offset from the FWHM estimates, and either Balmer line mass estimate. The correlation with the continuum slope is likely due to a combination of reddening, host contamination, and object-dependent SED shapes. When we add additional heterogeneous measurements from the literature, the results are unchanged. Moreover, in a trial observation of a remaining outlier, the origin of the deviation is clearly due to unrecognized absorption in a low S/N spectrum. This not only highlights the importance of the quality of the observations, but also raises the question whether cases like this one are common in the literature, further biasing comparisons between C IV and other broad emission lines.
Context.
Carbon is one of the most abundant components in the Universe. While silicates have been the main focus of solid phase studies in protoplanetary discs (PPDs), little is known about the solid ...carbon content especially in the planet-forming regions (~0.1–10 au). Fortunately, several refractory carbonaceous species present C-H bonds (such as hydrogenated nano-diamond and amorphous carbon as well as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), which generate infrared (IR) features that can be used to trace the solid carbon reservoirs. The new mid-IR instrument MATISSE, installed at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), can spatially resolve the inner regions (~1–10 au) of PPDs and locate, down to the au-scale, the emission coming from carbon grains.
Aims.
Our aim is to provide a consistent view on the radial structure, down to the au-scale, as well as basic physical properties and the nature of the material responsible for the IR continuum emission in the inner disk region around HD 179218.
Methods.
We implemented a temperature-gradient model to interpret the disk IR continuum emission, based on a multiwavelength dataset comprising a broadband spectral energy distribution and VLTI
H
-,
L
-, and
N
-bands interferometric data obtained in low spectral resolution. Then, we added a ring-like component, representing the carbonaceous
L
-band features-emitting region, to assess its detectability in future higher spectral resolution observations employing mid-IR interferometry.
Results.
Our temperature-gradient model can consistently reproduce our dataset. We confirmed a spatially extended inner 10 au emission in
H
- and
L
-bands, with a homogeneously high temperature (~1700 K), which we associate with the presence of stochastically heated nano-grains. On the other hand, the
N
-band emitting region presents a ring-like geometry that starts at about 10 au with a temperature of 400 K. Moreover, the existing low resolution MATISSE data exclude the presence of aromatic carbon grains (i.e., producing the 3.3 μm feature) in close proximity tothe star (≲1 au). Future medium spectral resolution MATISSE data will confirm their presence at larger distances.
Conclusions.
Our best-fit model demonstrates the presence of two separated dust populations: nano-grains that dominate the near- to mid-IR emission in the inner 10 au region and larger grains that dominate the emission outward. The presence of such nano-grains in the highly irradiated inner 10 au region of HD 179218 requires a replenishment process. Considering the expected lifetime of carbon nano-grains from The Heterogeneous dust Evolution Model for Interstellar Solids (THEMIS model), the estimated disk accretion inflow of HD 179218 could significantly contribute to feed the inner 10 au region in nano-grains.Moreover, we also expect a local regeneration of those nano-grains by the photo-fragmentation of larger aggregates.
Context.
FS Canis Majoris (FS CMa, HD 45677) is an unclassified Be star surrounded by an inclined dust disk. The evolutionary stage of FS CMa is still debated. Perpendicular to the circumstellar ...disk, a bipolar outflow was detected. Infrared aperture-synthesis imaging provides us with a unique opportunity to study the disk structure.
Aims.
Our aim is to study the intensity distribution of the disk of FS CMa in the mid-infrared
L
and
N
bands.
Methods.
We performed aperture-synthesis imaging of FS CMa with the MATISSE instrument (Multi AperTure mid-Infrared SpectroScopic Experiment) in the low spectral resolution mode to obtain images in the
L
and
N
bands. We computed radiative transfer models that reproduce the
L
- and
N
-band intensity distributions of the resolved disks.
Results.
We present
L
- and
N
-band aperture-synthesis images of FS CMa reconstructed in the wavelength bands of 3.4–3.8 and 8.6–9.0 μm. In the
L
-band image, the inner rim region of an inclined circumstellar disk and the central object can be seen with a spatial resolution of 2.7 milliarcsec (mas). An inner disk cavity with an angular diameter of ~6 × 12 mas is resolved. The
L
-band disk consists of a bright northwestern (NW) disk region and a much fainter southeastern (SE) region. The images suggest that we are looking at the bright inner wall of the NW disk rim, which is on the far side of the disk. In the
N
band, only the bright NW disk region is seen. In addition to deriving the inclination and the inner disk radius, fitting the reconstructed brightness distributions via radiative transfer modelling allows one to constrain the innermost disk structure, in particular the shape of theinner disk rim.
Context. VX Sgr is a cool, evolved, and luminous red star whose stellar parameters are difficult to determine, which affects its classification.
Aims. We aim to spatially resolve the photospheric ...extent as well as the circumstellar environment.
Methods. We used interferometric observations obtained with the MATISSE instrument in the L (3-4 mu m), M (4.5-5 mu m), and N (8-13 mu m) bands. We reconstructed monochromatic images using the MIRA software. We used 3D radiation-hydrodynamics simulations carried out with (COBOLD)-B-5 and a uniform disc model to estimate the apparent diameter and interpret the stellar surface structures. Moreover, we employed the radiative transfer codes OPTIM3D and RADMC3D to compute the spectral energy distribution for the L, M, and N bands, respectively.
Results. MATISSE observations unveil, for the first time, the morphology of VX Sgr across the L, M, and N bands. The reconstructed images show a complex morphology with brighter areas whose characteristics depend on the wavelength probed. We measured the angular diameter as a function of the wavelength and showed that the photospheric extent in the L and M bands depends on the opacity through the atmosphere. In addition to this, we also concluded that the observed photospheric inhomogeneities can be interpreted as convection-related surface structures. The comparison in the N band yielded a qualitative agreement between the N-band spectrum and simple dust radiative transfer simulations. However, it is not possible to firmly conclude on the interpretation of the current data because of the difficulty in constraing the model parameters using the limited accuracy of our absolute flux calibration.
Conclusions. MATISSE observations and the derived reconstructed images unveil the appearance of VX Sgr's stellar surface and circumstellar environment across a very large spectral domain for the first time.
Context.
Eta Carinae is a highly eccentric, massive binary system (semimajor axis ~15.5 au) with powerful stellar winds and a phase-dependent wind-wind collision (WWC) zone. The primary star,
η
Car ...A, is a luminous blue variable (LBV); the secondary,
η
Car B, is a Wolf-Rayet or O star with a faster but less dense wind. Aperture-synthesis imaging allows us to study the mass loss from the enigmatic LBV
η
Car. Understanding LBVs is a crucial step toward improving our knowledge about massive stars and their evolution.
Aims.
Our aim is to study the intensity distribution and kinematics of
η
Car’s WWC zone.
Methods.
Using the VLTI-MATISSE mid-infrared interferometry instrument, we perform Br
α
imaging of
η
Car’s distorted wind.
Results.
We present the first VLTI-MATISSE aperture-synthesis images of
η
Car A’s stellar windin several spectral channels distributed across the Br
α
4.052 μm line (spectral resolving power
R
~ 960). Our observations were performed close to periastron passage in February 2020 (orbital phase ~ 14.0022). The reconstructed iso-velocity images show the dependence of the primary stellar wind on wavelength or line-of-sight (LOS) velocity with a spatial resolution of 6 mas (~14 au). The radius of the faintest outer wind regions is ~26 mas (~60 au). At several negative LOS velocities, the primary stellar wind is less extended to the northwest than in other directions. This asymmetry is most likely caused by the WWC. Therefore, we see both the velocity field of the undisturbed primary wind and the WWC cavity. In continuum spectral channels, the primary star wind is more compact than in line channels. A fit of the observed continuum visibilities with the visibilities of a stellar wind CMFGEN model (CMFGEN is an atmosphere code developed to model the spectra of a variety of objects) provides a full width at half maximum fit diameter of the primary stellar wind of 2.84 ± 0.06 mas (6.54 ± 0.14 au). We comparethe derived intensity distributions with the CMFGEN stellar wind model and hydrodynamic WWC models.
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