Despite being sessile organisms constantly exposed to potential pathogens and pests, plants are surprisingly resilient to infections. Plants can detect invaders via the recognition of ...pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Plant PRRs are surface-localized receptor-like kinases, which comprise a ligand-binding ectodomain and an intracellular kinase domain, or receptor-like proteins, which do not exhibit any known intracellular signaling domain. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries that shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying ligand perception and subsequent activation of plant PRRs. Notably, plant PRRs appear as central components of multiprotein complexes at the plasma membrane that contain additional transmembrane and cytosolic kinases required for the initiation and specificity of immune signaling. PRR complexes are under tight control by protein phosphatases, E3 ligases, and other regulatory proteins, illustrating the exquisite and complex regulation of these molecular machines whose proper activation underlines a crucial layer of plant immunity.
Plants are highly resilient to infections and detect potential invaders via the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by surface-localized pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In this review, Macho and Zipfel discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying ligand perception and subsequent activation of plant PRRs.
51 I. 51 II. 52 III. 53 IV. 53 V. 54 VI. 54 55 References 56 SUMMARY: Most bacterial plant pathogens employ a type‐III secretion system to inject type‐III effector (T3E) proteins directly inside ...plant cells. These T3Es manipulate host cellular processes in order to create a permissive niche for bacterial proliferation, allowing development of the disease. An important role of T3Es in plant pathogenic bacteria is the suppression of plant immune responses. However, in recent years, research has uncovered T3E functions different from direct immune suppression, including the modulation of plant hormone signaling, metabolism or organelle function. This insight article discusses T3E functions other than suppression of immunity, which may contribute to the modulation of plant cells in order to promote bacterial survival, nutrient release, and bacterial replication and dissemination.
Highlights • Type-III effectors (T3Es) suppress plant immunity using multiple strategies. • PRR-triggered immunity is redundantly targeted by multiple T3Es from a single bacterial strain. • A single ...T3E can have multiple plant targets. • A given immune component can be targeted by multiple T3Es. • The study of T3Es reveals important immune components and unique biochemical processes.
Pathogen perception in plant roots is under-explored compared to that in shoots. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Wang et al. characterize the phosphorylation-mediated signaling pathway that ...positively and negatively regulates plant resistance to bacterial wilt disease upon perception of a metabolite from the soil-borne vascular pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum.
The plant perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns triggers a plethora of cellular immune responses. One of these responses is a rapid and transient burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) ...mediated by plasma membrane-localized NADPH oxidases. The ROS burst requires a functional receptor complex and the contribution of several additional regulatory components. In laboratory conditions, the ROS burst can be detected a few minutes after the treatment with an immunogenic microbial elicitor. For these reasons, the elicitor-triggered ROS burst has been often exploited as readout to probe the contribution of plant components to early immune responses. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the measurement of elicitor-triggered ROS burst in a simple, fast, and easy manner.
Bacterial wilt caused by plant pathogenic
spp. is one of the most important diseases affecting the production of many important crops worldwide. In China, a large scientific community has been ...dedicated to studying bacterial wilt and its causative agent,
and
. Most of their work was published in Chinese, which has hindered international communication and collaboration in this field. In this review, we summarize the status of knowledge on geographical distribution, diversity, and host range of
spp., as well as, the impact of bacterial wilt on important crops and disease control approaches, in China. We present areas of research and publications by Chinese scientists and propose the promotion of collaborative research within China and with the international community.
Plants recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via cell surface-localized pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading to PRR-triggered immunity (PTI). The Arabidopsis cytoplasmic ...kinase BIK1 is a downstream substrate of several PRR complexes. How plant PTI is negatively regulated is not fully understood. Here, we identify the protein phosphatase PP2C38 as a negative regulator of BIK1 activity and BIK1-mediated immunity. PP2C38 dynamically associates with BIK1, as well as with the PRRs FLS2 and EFR, but not with the co-receptor BAK1. PP2C38 regulates PAMP-induced BIK1 phosphorylation and impairs the phosphorylation of the NADPH oxidase RBOHD by BIK1, leading to reduced oxidative burst and stomatal immunity. Upon PAMP perception, PP2C38 is phosphorylated on serine 77 and dissociates from the FLS2/EFR-BIK1 complexes, enabling full BIK1 activation. Together with our recent work on the control of BIK1 turnover, this study reveals another important regulatory mechanism of this central immune component.
Nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) proteins function as sensors that perceive pathogen molecules and activate immunity. In plants, the accumulation and activation of ...NLRs is regulated by SUPPRESSOR OF G2 ALLELE OF skp1 (SGT1). In this work, we found that an effector protein named RipAC, secreted by the plant pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum, associates with SGT1 to suppress NLR-mediated SGT1-dependent immune responses, including those triggered by another R. solanacearum effector, RipE1. RipAC does not affect the accumulation of SGT1 or NLRs, or their interaction. However, RipAC inhibits the interaction between SGT1 and MAP kinases, and the phosphorylation of a MAPK target motif in the C-terminal domain of SGT1. Such phosphorylation is enhanced upon activation of immune signaling and contributes to the activation of immune responses mediated by the NLR RPS2. Additionally, SGT1 phosphorylation contributes to resistance against R. solanacearum. Our results shed light onto the mechanism of activation of NLR-mediated immunity, and suggest a positive feedback loop between MAPK activation and SGT1-dependent NLR activation.
Flagellin perception in Arabidopsis is through recognition of its highly conserved N-terminal epitope (flg22) by flagellin-sensitive 2 (FLS2). Flg22 binding induces FLS2 heteromerization with ...BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 1-associated kinase 1 (BAK1) and their reciprocal activation followed by plant immunity. Here, we report the crystal structure of FLS2 and BAK1 ectodomains complexed with flg22 at 3.06 angstroms. A conserved and a nonconserved site from the inner surface of the FLS2 solenoid recognize the C-and N-terminal segment of flg22, respectively, without oligomerization or conformational changes in the FLS2 ectodomain. Besides directly interacting with FLS2, BAK1 acts as a co-receptor by recognizing the C terminus of the FLS2-bound flg22. Our data reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying FLS2-BAK1 complex recognition of flg22 and provide insight into the immune receptor complex activation.
Protein kinases are major regulatory components in almost all cellular processes in eukaryotic cells. By adding phosphate groups, protein kinases regulate the activity, localization, protein–protein ...interactions, and other features of their target proteins. It is known that protein kinases are central components in plant responses to environmental stresses such as drought, high salinity, cold, and pathogen attack. However, only a few targets of these protein kinases have been identified. Moreover, how these protein kinases regulate downstream biological processes and mediate stress responses is still largely unknown. In this study, we introduce a strategy based on isotope-labeled in vitro phosphorylation reactions using in vivo phosphorylated peptides as substrate pools and apply this strategy to identify putative substrates of nine protein kinases that function in plant abiotic and biotic stress responses. As a result, we identified more than 5,000 putative target sites of osmotic stress-activated SnRK2.4 and SnRK2.6, abscisic acid-activated protein kinases SnRK2.6 and casein kinase 1-like 2 (CKL2), elicitor-activated protein kinase CDPK11 and MPK6, cold-activated protein kinase MPK6, H₂O₂-activated protein kinase OXI1 and MPK6, and saltinduced protein kinase SOS1 and MPK6, as well as the lowpotassium-activated protein kinase CIPK23. These results provide comprehensive information on the role of these protein kinases in the control of cellular activities and could be a valuable resource for further studies on the mechanisms underlying plant responses to environmental stresses.
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