Chronic inflammation has long been associated with increased incidence of malignancy and similarities in the regulatory mechanisms have been suggested for more than a century. Infiltration of innate ...immune cells, elevated activities of matrix metalloproteases and increased angiogenesis and vasculature density are a few examples of the similarities between chronic and tumour-associated inflammation. Conversely, the elimination of early malignant lesions by immune surveillance, which relies on the cytotoxic activity of tumour-infiltrating T cells or intra-epithelial lymphocytes, is thought to be rate-limiting for the risk to develop cancer. Here we show a molecular connection between the rise in tumour-associated inflammation and a lack of tumour immune surveillance. Expression of the heterodimeric cytokine interleukin (IL)-23, but not of its close relative IL-12, is increased in human tumours. Expression of these cytokines antagonistically regulates local inflammatory responses in the tumour microenvironment and infiltration of intra-epithelial lymphocytes. Whereas IL-12 promotes infiltration of cytotoxic T cells, IL-23 promotes inflammatory responses such as upregulation of the matrix metalloprotease MMP9, and increases angiogenesis but reduces CD8 T-cell infiltration. Genetic deletion or antibody-mediated elimination of IL-23 leads to increased infiltration of cytotoxic T cells into the transformed tissue, rendering a protective effect against chemically induced carcinogenesis. Finally, transplanted tumours are growth-restricted in hosts depleted for IL-23 or in IL-23-receptor-deficient mice. Although many strategies for immune therapy of cancer attempt to stimulate an immune response against solid tumours, infiltration of effector cells into the tumour tissue often appears to be a critical hurdle. We show that IL-23 is an important molecular link between tumour-promoting pro-inflammatory processes and the failure of the adaptive immune surveillance to infiltrate tumours.
T(H)-17 cells are a distinct lineage of proinflammatory T helper cells that are essential for autoimmune disease. In mice, commitment to the T(H)-17 lineage is dependent on transforming growth ...factor-beta and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Here we demonstrate that IL-23 and IL-1beta induced the development of human T(H)-17 cells expressing IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22, IL-26, interferon-gamma, the chemokine CCL20 and transcription factor RORgammat. In situ, T(H)-17 cells were identified by expression of the IL-23 receptor and the memory T cell marker CD45RO. Psoriatic skin lesions contained IL-23-producing dendritic cells and were enriched in the cytokines produced by human T(H)-17 cells that promote the production of antimicrobial peptides in human keratinocytes. Our data collectively indicate that human and mouse T(H)-17 cells require distinct factors during differentiation and that human T(H)-17 cells may regulate innate immunity in epithelial cells.
The recently discovered cytokine IL-27 belongs to the IL-6/IL-12 family of cytokines and induced proliferation of naive CD4(+) T cells and the generation of a Th1-type adaptive immune response. ...Although binding of IL-27 to the cytokine receptor WSX-1 was demonstrated, this interaction proved insufficient to mediate cellular effects. Hence, IL-27 was believed to form a heteromeric signaling receptor complex with WSX-1 and another, yet to be identified, cytokine receptor subunit. In this study, we describe that WSX-1 together with gp130 constitutes a functional signal-transducing receptor for IL-27. We show that neither of the two subunits itself is sufficient to mediate IL-27-induced signal transduction, but that the combination of both is required for this event. Expression analysis of WSX-1 and gp130 by quantitative PCR suggests that IL-27 might have a variety of cellular targets besides naive CD4(+) T cells: we demonstrate gene induction of a subset of inflammatory cytokines in primary human mast cells and monocytes in response to IL-27 stimulation. Thus, IL-27 not only contributes to the development of an adaptive immune response through its action on CD4(+) T cells, it also directly acts on cells of the innate immune system.
Interleukin-23 (IL-23) is essential for the differentiation of pathogenic effector T helper 17 (Th17) cells, but its role in memory Th17 cell responses is unclear. Using the experimental autoimmune ...encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, we report that memory Th17 cells rapidly expanded in response to rechallenge and migrated to the CNS in high numbers, resulting in earlier onset and increased severity of clinical disease. Memory Th17 cells were generated from IL-17+ and RORγt+ precursors, and the stability of the Th17 cell phenotype depended on the amount of time allowed for the primary response. IL-23 was required for this enhanced recall response. IL-23 receptor blockade did not directly impact IL-17 production, but did impair the subsequent proliferation and generation of effectors coexpressing the Th1 cell-specific transcription factor T-bet. In addition, many genes required for cell-cycle progression were downregulated in Th17 cells that lacked IL-23 signaling, showing that a major mechanism for IL-23 in primary and memory Th17 cell responses operates via regulation of proliferation-associated pathways.
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•Autoimmune memory cells are generated from IL-17+ and RORγt+ precursors in EAE•IL-23 is required for autoimmune memory function in EAE•IL-23R blockade prevents conversion of Th17 cells to T-bet+IFNγ+ cells•IL-23R blockade impairs Th17 memory proliferation and regulates cell-cycle genes
Th17 cells are an inflammatory subset of helper CD4+ T cells implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic autoimmune diseases. IL-23 is known to be required for the initial generation of Th17 cells, but in patients with autoimmune disease, memory cells are the continuing drivers of disease. In the present study, McGeachy and colleagues report that memory Th17 cells mediate severe disease in a murine model of multiple sclerosis, and that the expansion and ultimate effector phenotype of these autoimmune memory Th17 cells is dependent on signaling through IL-23.
Interleukin-23 (IL-23), a member of the IL-12 family, is a heterodimeric cytokine that is composed of the p40 subunit of IL-12 plus a unique p19 subunit. IL-23 is critical for autoimmune ...inflammation, in part due to its stimulation of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-17A. It is less clear, however, if IL-23 is required during the immune response to pathogens. We examined the role of IL-23 during Mycobacterium bovis BCG infection. We found that IL-23 reduces the bacterial burden and promotes granuloma formation when IL-12 is absent. However, IL-23 does not contribute substantially to host resistance when IL-12 is present, as the ability to control bacterial growth and form granulomata is not affected in IL-23p19-deficient mice and mice treated with a specific anti-IL-23p19 antibody. IL-23p19-deficient mice are also able to mount an effective memory response to secondary infection with BCG. While IL-23p19-deficient mice do not produce IL-17A, this cytokine is not necessary for effective control of infection, and antibody blocking of IL-17A in both wild-type and IL-12-deficient mice also has little effect on the bacterial burden. These data suggest that IL-23 by itself does not play an essential role in the protective immune response to BCG infection; however, the presence of IL-23 can partially compensate for the absence of IL-12. Furthermore, neutralization of IL-23 or IL-17A does not increase susceptibility to mycobacterial BCG infection.
Summary
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)‐mediated late‐phase reactions can be induced in atopic humans by intradermal injection of relevant allergens or anti‐IgE antibodies. The histology of these reactions ...resembles that of naturally occurring atopic dermatitis. Strikingly similar responses can be induced in dogs, suggesting that a canine model could prove valuable for preclinical investigation of drugs targeting late‐phase reactions. This study was designed to characterize the cellular, cytokine and chemokine responses after intradermal anti‐IgE injection in untreated and prednisolone‐treated dogs. Normal beagles were untreated or treated with prednisolone before intradermal injection of polyclonal rabbit anti‐canine IgE or normal rabbit IgG. Biopsies were taken before injection and 6, 24 and 48 hr after injection. Samples were evaluated by histological and immunohistochemical staining, as well as by real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis. Dermal eosinophil and neutrophil numbers increased dramatically within 6 hr after injection of rabbit anti‐canine IgE, and remained moderately elevated at 48 hr. The numbers of CD1c+ and CD3+ mononuclear cells were also increased at 6 hr. The real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction demonstrated marked increases in mRNA expression for interleukin‐13 (IL‐13), CCL2, CCL5 and CCL17. Levels of mRNA for IL‐2, IL‐4, IL‐6 and IFN‐γ did not change within the limits of detection. Prednisolone administration suppressed the influx of neutrophils, eosinophils, CD1c+ and CD3+ cells, as well as expression of IL‐13, CCL2, CCL5 and CCL17. These data document the cytokine and chemokine responses to anti‐IgE injection in canine skin, and they demonstrate the ability of the model to characterize the anti‐inflammatory effects of a known therapeutic agent.
Background
Biomarkers facilitate early detection of disease and measurement of therapeutic efficacy, both at clinical and experimental levels. Recent advances in analytics and disease models allow ...comprehensive screening for biomarkers in complex diseases, such as asthma, that was previously not feasible.
Objective
Using murine and nonhuman primate (NHP) models of asthma, identify biomarkers associated with early and chronic stages of asthma and responses to steroid treatment.
Methods
The total protein content from thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgenic (TSLP Tg) mouse BAL fluid was ascertained by shotgun proteomics analysis. A subset of these potential markers was further analyzed in BAL fluid, BAL cell mRNA, and lung tissue mRNA during the stages of asthma and following corticosteroid treatment. Validation was conducted in murine and NHP models of allergic asthma.
Results
Over 40 proteins were increased in the BAL fluid of TSLP Tg mice that were also detected by qRT-PCR in lung tissue and BAL cells, as well as in OVA-sensitive mice and house dust mite-sensitive NHP. Previously undescribed as asthma biomarkers, KLK1, Reg3γ, ITLN2, and LTF were modulated in asthmatic mice, and Clca3, Chi3l4 (YM2), and Ear11 were the first lung biomarkers to increase during disease and the last biomarkers to decline in response to therapy. In contrast, GP-39, LCN2, sICAM-1, YM1, Epx, Mmp12, and Klk1 were good indicators of early therapeutic intervention. In NHP, AMCase, sICAM-1, CLCA1, and GP-39 were reduced upon treatment with corticosteroids.
Conclusions and clinical relevance
These results significantly advance our understanding of the biomarkers present in various tissue compartments in animal models of asthma, including those induced early during asthma and modulated with therapeutic intervention, and show that BAL cells (or their surrogate, induced sputum cells) are a viable choice for biomarker examination.
Interleukin (IL)-23 is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of a unique p19 subunit, and a common p40 subunit shared with IL-12. IL-12 is important for the development of T helper (Th)1 cells that are ...essential for host defense and tumor suppression. In contrast, IL-23 does not promote the development of interferon-gamma-producing Th1 cells, but is one of the essential factors required for the expansion of a pathogenic CD4(+) T cell population, which is characterized by the production of IL-17, IL-17F, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor. Gene expression analysis of IL-23-driven autoreactive T cells identified a unique expression pattern of proinflammatory cytokines and other novel factors, distinguishing them from IL-12-driven T cells. Using passive transfer studies, we confirm that these IL-23-dependent CD4(+) T cells are highly pathogenic and essential for the establishment of organ-specific inflammation associated with central nervous system autoimmunity.
Uncontrolled mucosal immunity in the gastrointestinal tract of humans results in chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), such as Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis. In early clinical trials as ...well as in animal models, IL-12 has been implicated as a major mediator of these diseases based on the ability of anti-p40 mAb treatment to reverse intestinal inflammation. The cytokine IL-23 shares the same p40 subunit with IL-12, and the anti-p40 mAbs used in human and mouse IBD studies neutralized the activities of both IL-12 and IL-23. IL-10-deficient mice spontaneously develop enterocolitis. To determine how IL-23 contributes to intestinal inflammation, we studied the disease susceptibility in the absence of either IL-23 or IL-12 in this model, as well as the ability of recombinant IL-23 to exacerbate IBD induced by T cell transfer. Our study shows that in these models, IL-23 is essential for manifestation of chronic intestinal inflammation, whereas IL-12 is not. A critical target of IL-23 is a unique subset of tissue-homing memory T cells, which are specifically activated by IL-23 to produce the proinflammatory mediators IL-17 and IL-6. This pathway may be responsible for chronic intestinal inflammation as well as other chronic autoimmune inflammatory diseases.
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