The intestinal epithelium harbors large populations of activated and memory lymphocytes, yet these cells do not cause tissue damage in the steady state. We investigated how intestinal T cell effector ...differentiation is regulated upon migration to the intestinal epithelium. Using gene loss- and gain-of-function strategies, as well as reporter approaches, we showed that cooperation between the transcription factors T-bet and Runx3 resulted in suppression of conventional CD4+ T helper functions and induction of an intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) program that included expression of IEL markers such as CD8αα homodimers. Interferon-γ sensing and T-bet expression by CD4+ T cells were both required for this program, which was distinct from conventional T helper differentiation but shared by other IEL populations, including TCRαβ+CD8αα+ IELs. We conclude that the gut environment provides cues for IEL maturation through the interplay between T-bet and Runx3, allowing tissue-specific adaptation of mature T lymphocytes.
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•T-bet is upregulated by CD4+ IELs•T-bet deficiency leads to reduced CD8αα IEL populations•Runx3 cooperates with T-bet to suppress helper T cell function and induce IEL program•IFN-γR and IL-27Rα play complementary roles for IEL subpopulations
It is unclear how intestinal T cell effector differentiation is regulated upon migration to the intestinal epithelium. Mucida and colleagues found that the gut environment provides cues for intraepithelial lymphocyte maturation through the interplay between the transcription factors T-bet and Runx3.
Therapeutic harnessing of adaptive immunity via checkpoint inhibition has transformed the treatment of many cancers. Despite unprecedented long-term responses, most patients do not respond to these ...therapies. Immunotherapy non-responders often harbor high levels of circulating myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs)—an immunosuppressive innate cell population. Through genetic and pharmacological approaches, we uncovered a pathway governing MDSC abundance in multiple cancer types. Therapeutic liver-X nuclear receptor (LXR) agonism reduced MDSC abundance in murine models and in patients treated in a first-in-human dose escalation phase 1 trial. MDSC depletion was associated with activation of cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses in mice and patients. The LXR transcriptional target ApoE mediated these effects in mice, where LXR/ApoE activation therapy elicited robust anti-tumor responses and also enhanced T cell activation during various immune-based therapies. We implicate the LXR/ApoE axis in the regulation of innate immune suppression and as a target for enhancing the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy in patients.
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•LXR agonism reduces immunosuppressive MDSC levels in mice and cancer patients•LXR transcriptional target ApoE impairs MDSC survival•LXR-induced MDSC depletion enhances activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs)•CTL activation occurs in mice and patients, enhancing tumor immunotherapy in mice
Therapeutic agonism of the LXR/ApoE axis promotes anti-tumor immunity by targeting immunosuppressive innate immune cells.
Intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are located at the critical interface between the intestinal lumen, which is chronically exposed to food and microbes, and the core of the body. Using ...high-resolution microscopy techniques and intersectional genetic tools, we investigated the nature of IEL responses to luminal microbes. We observed that TCRγδ IELs exhibit unique microbiota-dependent location and movement patterns in the epithelial compartment. This behavioral pattern quickly changes upon exposure to different enteric pathogens, resulting in increased interepithelial cell (EC) scanning, expression of antimicrobial genes, and glycolysis. Both dynamic and metabolic changes to γδ IEL depend on pathogen sensing by ECs. Direct modulation of glycolysis is sufficient to change γδ IEL behavior and susceptibility to early pathogen invasion. Our results uncover a coordinated EC-IEL response to enteric infections that modulates lymphocyte energy utilization and dynamics and supports maintenance of the intestinal epithelial barrier.
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•γδ IELs display microbe-dependent localization and motility patterns•Infection induces rapid behavioral changes in γδ IELs•Coordinated epithelial cell-IEL responses to pathogens are EC-Myd88 dependent•EC responses to microbial cues trigger a protective IEL metabolic switch
Communication between epithelial cells and intraepithelial lymphocytes guides lymphocyte energy utilization and dynamic behavior, helping to support maintenance of the intestinal epithelial barrier during infections.
Tissue-resident macrophages are the most abundant immune cell population in healthy adipose tissue. Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) change during metabolic stress and are thought to contribute to ...metabolic syndrome. Here, we studied ATM subpopulations in steady state and in response to nutritional and infectious challenges. We found that tissue-resident macrophages from healthy epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) tightly associate with blood vessels, displaying very high endocytic capacity. We refer to these cells as vasculature-associated ATMs (VAMs). Chronic high-fat diet (HFD) results in the accumulation of a monocyte-derived CD11c
CD64
double-positive (DP) macrophage eWAT population with a predominant anti-inflammatory/detoxifying gene profile, but reduced endocytic function. In contrast, fasting rapidly and reversibly leads to VAM depletion, while acute inflammatory stress induced by pathogens transiently depletes VAMs and simultaneously boosts DP macrophage accumulation. Our results indicate that ATM populations dynamically adapt to metabolic stress and inflammation, suggesting an important role for these cells in maintaining tissue homeostasis.
The intestine is a site of direct encounter with the external environment and must consequently balance barrier defense with nutrient uptake. To investigate how nutrient uptake is regulated in the ...small intestine, we tested the effect of diets with different macronutrient compositions on epithelial gene expression. We found that enzymes and transporters required for carbohydrate digestion and absorption were regulated by carbohydrate availability. The "on-demand" induction of this machinery required γδ T cells, which regulated this program through the suppression of interleukin-22 production by type 3 innate lymphoid cells. Nutrient availability altered the tissue localization and transcriptome of γδ T cells. Additionally, transcriptional responses to diet involved cellular remodeling of the epithelial compartment. Thus, this work identifies a role for γδ T cells in nutrient sensing.
Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells in peripheral tissues (pTregs) are instrumental in limiting inflammatory responses to nonself antigens. Within the intestine, pTregs are located primarily in the lamina ...propria, whereas intraepithelial CD4⁺ T cells (CD4IELs), which also exhibit anti-inflammatory properties and depend on similar environmental cues, reside in the epithelium. Using intravital microscopy, we show distinct cell dynamics of intestinal Tregs and CD4IELs. Upon migration to the epithelium, Tregs lose Foxp3 and convert to CD4IELs in a microbiota-dependent manner, an effect attributed to the loss of the transcription factor ThPOK. Finally, we demonstrate that pTregs and CD4IELs perform complementary roles in the regulation of intestinal inflammation. These results reveal intratissue specialization of anti-inflammatory T cells shaped by discrete niches of the intestine.
The microbiome contributes to the development and maturation of the immune system. In response to commensal bacteria, intestinal CD4
T lymphocytes differentiate into functional subtypes with ...regulatory or effector functions. The development of small intestine intraepithelial lymphocytes that coexpress CD4 and CD8αα homodimers (CD4IELs) depends on the microbiota. However, the identity of the microbial antigens recognized by CD4
T cells that can differentiate into CD4IELs remains unknown. We identified β-hexosaminidase, a conserved enzyme across commensals of the Bacteroidetes phylum, as a driver of CD4IEL differentiation. In a mouse model of colitis, β-hexosaminidase-specific lymphocytes protected against intestinal inflammation. Thus, T cells of a single specificity can recognize a variety of abundant commensals and elicit a regulatory immune response at the intestinal mucosa.
The constant interaction between intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) and intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) is thought to regulate mucosal barrier function and immune responses against invading ...pathogens. IELs represent a heterogeneous population of mostly activated and antigen-experienced T cells, but the biological function of IELs and their relationship with IECs is still poorly understood. Here, we describe a method to study T-cell–epithelial cell interactions using a recently established long-term intestinal “enteroid” culture system. This system allowed the study of peripheral T cell survival, proliferation, differentiation and behavior during long-term co-cultures with crypt-derived 3-D enteroids. Peripheral T cells activated in the presence of enteroids acquire several features of IELs, including morphology, membrane markers and movement in the epithelial layer. This co-culture system may facilitate the investigation of complex interactions between intestinal epithelial cells and immune cells, particularly allowing long term-cultures and studies targeting specific pathways in IEC or immune cell compartments.
•Enteroids grow in T-cell complete media.•Peripheral T cells survive in long term enteroid co-cultures.•T cells upregulate IEL markers in enteroid co-cultures.•T cells show IEL movement patterns in enteroid co-cultures.
Tissue adaptation is an intrinsic component of immune cell development, influencing both resistance to pathogens and tolerance. Chronically stimulated surfaces of the body, in particular the gut ...mucosa, are the major sites where immune cells traffic and reside. Their adaptation to these environments requires constant discrimination between natural stimulation coming from harmless microbiota and food, and pathogens that need to be cleared. This review will focus on the adaptation of lymphocytes to the gut mucosa, a highly specialized environment that can help us understand the plasticity of leukocytes arriving at various tissue sites and how tissue-related factors operate to shape immune cell fate and function.
The hormone leptin plays a key role in energy homeostasis, and the absence of either leptin or its receptor (LepR) leads to severe obesity and metabolic disorders. To avoid indirect effects and to ...address the cell-intrinsic role of leptin signaling in the immune system, we conditionally targeted LepR in T cells. In contrast with pleiotropic immune disorders reported in obese mice with leptin or LepR deficiency, we found that LepR deficiency in CD4(+) T cells resulted in a selective defect in both autoimmune and protective Th17 responses. Reduced capacity for differentiation toward a Th17 phenotype by lepr-deficient T cells was attributed to reduced activation of the STAT3 and its downstream targets. This study establishes cell-intrinsic roles for LepR signaling in the immune system and suggests that leptin signaling during T cell differentiation plays a crucial role in T cell peripheral effector function.
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