Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) is uncontrollably spread all over the world. The host immune responses strongly try to confront it with all the potential cells and ...cytokines. With chronically condition of SARS‐CoV‐2, natural killer cells and T cells become exhausted and decreasing their count leads to lymphopenia. Inability to eradicate the infected organ makes hyperinitiation of the immune system, which releases the excessive inflammatory cytokines to compensate the exhausted one as well as the low lymphocytes counts; it consequently leads to the cytokine storm syndrome. These mechanisms and the potential therapeutic targeting are discussed in this paper.
Autoimmune complications of COVID‐19 Yazdanpanah, Niloufar; Rezaei, Nima
Journal of medical virology,
January 2022, Volume:
94, Issue:
1
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is still propagating a year after the start of the pandemic. Besides the complications patients face during the COVID‐19 disease period, there is an accumulating ...body of evidence concerning the late‐onset complications of COVID‐19, of which autoimmune manifestations have attracted remarkable attention from the first months of the pandemic. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia, immune thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune thyroid diseases, Kawasaki disease, Guillain‐Barre syndrome, and the detection of autoantibodies are the cues to the discovery of the potential of COVID‐19 in inducing autoimmunity. Clarification of the pathophysiology of COVID‐19 injuries to the host, whether it is direct viral injury or autoimmunity, could help to develop appropriate treatment.
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•Human neutralizing antibodies can block COVID-19 infection.•Most monoclonal antibodies inhibit binding S protein to ACE2 receptor.•Researchers are trying to develop treatments based ...on antibodies to block and/or neutralize SARS-CoV-2.•The genetic and structural similarity of the virus to SARS-CoV helps for designing new methods for treatment of COVID-19.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is expanding rapidly, which made it as one of top priorities for scientists to develop novel treatment strategies. Researchers are racing to develop treatments based on antibodies to block and/or neutralize the coronavirus in affected patients. Initially, the genetic and structural similarity of the virus to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) created the potential for understanding disease pathogenesis. Researchers have published reports of specific monoclonal antibodies against to COVID-19 (B38, H4, 47D11) and hope that this method is effective. As well as studies on patients who are plasma therapy, the patient's condition shows improvement. The evidence for these studies is very promising and demonstrates the potential of monoclonal antibody therapy as a therapeutic approach and prevention of covid-19 infection.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), has led to a pandemic since March 2020. The exact pathogenesis of SARS‐CoV‐2 and the role ...of each component of the innate and adaptive immune system is still unknown. However, available data from other coronavirus families, such as SARS‐CoV and the Middle East respiratory syndrome and also new findings could be useful for a better understanding of SARS‐CoV‐2. Toll‐like receptors (TLR) play an important role in recognition of viral particles and activation of the innate immune system. Activation of TLR pathways leads to secretion of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin‐1 (IL‐1), IL‐6, and tumor necrosis factor‐α, as well as type 1 interferon. Different TLRs, like TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR6, TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 are potentially important in COVID‐19 infection. It is also worth mentioning that we should bear in mind both the beneficial and harmful effects of TLR in confronting COVID‐19 infection. TLRs could be a potential target in controlling the infection in the early stages of disease and production of vaccine against SARS‐CoV‐2.
•The alternatively activated macrophages secrete immunomodulatory mediators involved in tissue repair and regeneration and regulate the immune response in many inflammatory diseases.•MSCs can induce ...macrophage polarization towards the M2 phenotype but this cell-based therapy has several clinical risks and problems.•MSC derived exosomes can help manage inflammatory diseases and conditions affecting the heart, Kidney, lung, liver, brain, muscle, and skin and autoimmune diseases efficiently and safely and increase patients’ survival.•Effects of MSC-derived exosomes in treating disease are related to M2 polarization with anti-inflammatory activity.•Further studies are required to investigate more about this strategy in clinical use and potential issues with them.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells beneficial in regenerative medicine and tissue repair. The therapeutic potential of MSCs for inflammatory diseases and conditions is partly due to secreted exosomes. Exosomes are one group of extracellular vesicles with 50–150 nm in diameter. They can carry numerous molecules and introduce them to the recipient cells to produce various biological effects. Macrophages are classified into M1 and M2 subtypes based on their activation states. M1 macrophages release pro-inflammatory factors like tumor necrosis factoralfa (TNF-α), interleukin1alfa (IL-1α), interleukin1beta (IL-1β), interleukin6 (IL-6), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), while M2 macrophages secrete anti-inflammatory mediators including interleukin10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), C-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CCL1), C-C motif chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17), C-C motif chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18), and C-C motif chemokine ligand 22 (CCL22). This review summarizes the effect of MSC-derived exosomes in the polarization of M2 macrophages, which their anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties are potentially effective in inflammation diseases and conditions such as central nervous system (CNS) diseases, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, cardiomyopathy, graftversushost disease, kidney, liver, lung, and skin injuries.
Superhydrophobic and superoleophilic (SHSO) membranes have gained remarkable attention, particularly in selective and efficient oil-water separation applications. This paper provides a comprehensive ...review of the SHSO membranes, fabrication and characterization methods, the advantages and disadvantages of the fabrication techniques, current status and prospects of SHSO surfaces, and potential future research directions. Chemicals such as silanes, thiols, fatty acids, carbon nanotubes, and polyethylene-based polymers are commonly used to adjust the surface energy for the SHSO membranes. These membranes have been proven successful in selectively separating oil from oil-water mixtures with oil separation efficiency >99%. Although there are limited studies on the short-term stability assessment of the SHSO coatings upon exposure to acid and alkaline environments, the effects of temperature, and adsorption of heavier components of the crude oils (such as asphaltenes, and resins) on the separation efficiency have not been adequately investigated yet. Moreover, the fouling performance of the SHSO membranes with water-derived fouling is surprisingly missing in oil-water separation applications in the literature. With the breakthrough in technology, the use of 2D materials such as graphene and high-resolution 3D printers to create hierarchical features on membranes, research on application of SHSO membranes in oil-water separation processes can be further advanced.
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•This review paper focuses on fabrication and characterization of SHSO surfaces.•The efficiency of SHSO mesh, porous, and film-based membranes for oil-water separation is discussed.•Different methods to modify surface roughness and chemistry for SHSO wetting conditions are assessed.•Insights on the future developments and applications of SHSO membranes are given.•The aspects that need further attention in the future research studies are highlighted.
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•A comprehensive study on renewable energy resources in North America is conducted.•A detailed evaluation of renewable energy potentials is provided.•Important steps for better use of ...renewable energy resources are summarized.•Emerging technologies for development and management of renewable energy are addressed.•Theoretical and practical challenges in development of renewable energies are highlighted.
Energy is an important drive for the economic development and social growth. The energy demand has remarkably escalated due to the technological developments in various governmental, industrial, and municipal activities. The fast growing rate of the energy demand as well as the fuel prices, along with the necessity to control the greenhouse gas emissions are the leading driving forces for effective exploitation of the renewable energy resources. In fact, satisfying the growing global energy demands and mitigating the climate change are of the utmost importance in the modern days. In this review paper, a detailed overview of the development and evolution of the renewable and sustainable energy sources is provided in terms of their types, characteristics, applications, production processes, advantages and disadvantages. Moreover, we discuss the impacts of the renewable energies on health and environment, along with the relevant policies and regulations. Further, the emerging technologies and theoretical and practical challenges in the development of the renewable energies are analyzed. Particularly, this review provides information on renewable and sustainable energies' status and prospects in North America. Central large-scale technology and distributed configurations of the renewable energies might be improved in the North American countries to effectively utilize the renewable energies for producing electricity, biomass-based fuels, and heating in both local/rural and industrial divisions. In addition to employment opportunities stemmed from manufacturing of the renewable energies, its significant impact on the economic development can be enhanced in the US, Canada, and Mexico through development of the renewable energy sources.
•A critical review on carbonated water injection (CWI) is provided.•Description, key characteristics, and pros and cons of CWI process are discussed.•Parametric sensitivity analysis identifies ...important factors/mechanisms in CWI strategy.•Main challenges for research/engineering activities in CWI processes are addressed.•Useful guidelines to design, operate, and optimize CWI operations are recommended.
Carbonated water injection (CWI) is a promising enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technique in which the dissolved CO2 can transfer to the oil phase to improve the oil mobility and to cause oil swelling, both enhancing the sweep efficiency. In addition to serving as an EOR method, CWI promotes a high storage capacity for geological CO2 storage. A number of laboratory tests and field applications have confirmed the effectiveness of CWI. This paper provides a comprehensive review of CWI to cover its important aspects/features such as displacement mechanisms and recovery performance at various conditions/properties. In this paper, carbonated water injection process and the properties of CO2-brine-oil systems are described. The influences of petrophysical properties, fluid properties, and operational parameters on the performance of CWI are also thoroughly addressed. The pore-scale investigations conducted by several researchers are reported in this review. The theoretical and practical challenges associated with the implementation of CWI are also discussed to unveil the fundamental mechanisms of transport phenomena in CWI. Some of the key points that are deduced from the previous theoretical and engineering works include: the exsolution of CO2 from carbonated water during pressure drop can provide additional energy for an extra oil recovery; detailed mathematical models capable of capturing the effects of dissolution, gravity, capillary pressure, and relative permeability hysteresis in 2-D and 3-D spatial orientation on the CWI performance have not been systematically developed yet; disparities between model results and experimental results are attributed to the instantaneous equilibrium assumptions in the model development; and the occurrence of asphaltene precipitation during CWI operations has not been highlighted in a majority of research works, while it is expected to happen during the CO2 exsolution due to the pressure decline.
Schizophrenia, a multisystem disorder with an unknown etiology, is associated with several immune dysfunctions, including abnormal levels of circulating cytokines. In this review, we investigated the ...changes of cytokines in schizophrenic patients, their connection with behavioral symptoms severity and their potential clinical implications. We also assessed the possible causative role of abnormal cytokine levels in schizophrenia pathogenesis. Based on meta-analyses, we categorized cytokines according to their changes in schizophrenic patients into four groups: (1) increased cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-1β, IL-12, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, (2) non-altered cytokines, including IL-2, IL-4, and IL-17, (3) increased or non-altered cytokines, including IL-8 and interferon (IFN)-γ, and (4) IL-10 with increased, decreased, and non-altered levels. Notably, alterations in cytokines may be variable in four different categories of SP, including first-episode and drug-naïve, first-episode and non-drug-naïve, stable chronic, and chronic in acute relapse. Furthermore, disease duration, symptoms severity, incidence of aggression, and cognitive abilities are correlated with levels of certain cytokines. Clinical implications of investigating the levels of cytokine in schizophrenic patients include early diagnosis, novel therapeutic targets development, patient stratification for choosing the best therapeutic protocol, and predicting the prognosis and treatment response. The levels of IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, IL-2 are related to the treatment response. The available evidence shows a potential causative role for cytokines in schizophrenia development. There is a substantial need for studies investigating the levels of cytokines before disease development and delineating the therapeutic implications of the disrupted cytokine levels in schizophrenia.
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