Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) originate from genetically transformed hematopoietic stem cells that retain the capacity for multilineage differentiation and effective myelopoiesis. Beginning in ...early 2005, a number of novel mutations involving Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), Myeloproliferative Leukemia Virus (MPL), TET oncogene family member 2 (TET2), Additional Sex Combs-Like 1 (ASXL1), Casitas B-lineage lymphoma proto-oncogene (CBL), Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) and IKAROS family zinc finger 1 (IKZF1) have been described in BCR-ABL1-negative MPNs. However, none of these mutations were MPN specific, displayed mutual exclusivity or could be traced back to a common ancestral clone. JAK2 and MPL mutations appear to exert a phenotype-modifying effect and are distinctly associated with polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia and primary myelofibrosis; the corresponding mutational frequencies are approximately 99, 55 and 65% for JAK2 and 0, 3 and 10% for MPL mutations. The incidence of TET2, ASXL1, CBL, IDH or IKZF1 mutations in these disorders ranges from 0 to 17%; these latter mutations are more common in chronic (TET2, ASXL1, CBL) or juvenile (CBL) myelomonocytic leukemias, mastocytosis (TET2), myelodysplastic syndromes (TET2, ASXL1) and secondary acute myeloid leukemia, including blast-phase MPN (IDH, ASXL1, IKZF1). The functional consequences of MPN-associated mutations include unregulated JAK-STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) signaling, epigenetic modulation of transcription and abnormal accumulation of oncoproteins. However, it is not clear as to whether and how these abnormalities contribute to disease initiation, clonal evolution or blastic transformation.
Polycythemia vera (PV) and essential thrombocythemia (ET) constitute two of the three BCR-ABL1-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms and are characterized by relatively long median survivals ...(approximately 14 and 20 years, respectively). Potentially fatal disease complications in PV and ET include disease transformation into myelofibrosis (MF) or acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The range of reported frequencies for post-PV MF were 4.9-6% at 10 years and 6-14% at 15 years and for post-ET MF were 0.8-4.9% at 10 years and 4-11% at 15 years. The corresponding figures for post-PV AML were 2.3-14.4% at 10 years and 5.5-18.7% at 15 years and for post-ET AML were 0.7-3% at 10 years and 2.1-5.3% at 15 years. Risk factors cited for post-PV MF include advanced age, leukocytosis, reticulin fibrosis, splenomegaly and JAK2V617F allele burden and for post-ET MF include advanced age, leukocytosis, anemia, reticulin fibrosis, absence of JAK2V617F, use of anagrelide and presence of ASXL1 mutation. Risk factors for post-PV AML include advanced age, leukocytosis, reticulin fibrosis, splenomegaly, abnormal karyotype, TP53 or RUNX1 mutations as well as use of pipobroman, radiophosphorus (P(32)) and busulfan and for post-ET AML include advanced age, leukocytosis, anemia, extreme thrombocytosis, thrombosis, reticulin fibrosis, TP53 or RUNX1 mutations. It is important to note that some of the aforementioned incidence figures and risk factor determinations are probably inaccurate and at times conflicting because of the retrospective nature of studies and the inadvertent labeling, in some studies, of patients with prefibrotic primary MF or 'masked' PV, as ET. Ultimately, transformation of MPN leads to poor outcomes and management remains challenging. Further understanding of the molecular events leading to disease transformation is being investigated.
The 2001 World Health Organization (WHO) treatise on the classification of hematopoietic tumors lists chronic myeloproliferative diseases (CMPDs) as a subdivision of myeloid neoplasms that includes ...the four classic myeloproliferative disorders (MPDs)-chronic myelogenous leukemia, polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocythemia (ET) and primary myelofibrosis (PMF)-as well as chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), chronic eosinophilic leukemia/hypereosinophilic syndrome (CEL/HES) and 'CMPD, unclassifiable'. In the upcoming 4th edition of the WHO document, due out in 2008, the term 'CMPDs' is replaced by 'myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs)', and the MPN category now includes mast cell disease (MCD), in addition to the other subcategories mentioned above. At the same time, however, myeloid neoplasms with molecularly characterized clonal eosinophilia, previously classified under CEL/HES, are now removed from the MPN section and assembled into a new category of their own. The WHO diagnostic criteria for both the classic BCR-ABL-negative MPDs (that is PV, ET and PMF) and CEL/HES have also been revised, in the 2008 edition, by incorporating new information on their molecular pathogenesis. The current review highlights these changes and also provides diagnostic algorithms that are tailored to routine clinical practice.
Ten-Eleven Translocation-2 (TET2) inactivation through loss-of-function mutation, deletion and IDH1/2 (Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 and 2) gene mutation is a common event in myeloid and lymphoid ...malignancies. TET2 gene mutations similar to those observed in myeloid and lymphoid malignancies also accumulate with age in otherwise healthy subjects with clonal hematopoiesis. TET2 is one of the three proteins of the TET (Ten-Eleven Translocation) family, which are evolutionarily conserved dioxygenases that catalyze the conversion of 5-methyl-cytosine (5-mC) to 5-hydroxymethyl-cytosine (5-hmC) and promote DNA demethylation. TET dioxygenases require 2-oxoglutarate, oxygen and Fe(II) for their activity, which is enhanced in the presence of ascorbic acid. TET2 is the most expressed TET gene in the hematopoietic tissue, especially in hematopoietic stem cells. In addition to their hydroxylase activity, TET proteins recruit the O-linked β-D-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) transferase (OGT) enzyme to chromatin, which promotes post-transcriptional modifications of histones and facilitates gene expression. The TET2 level is regulated by interaction with IDAX, originating from TET2 gene fission during evolution, and by the microRNA miR-22. TET2 has pleiotropic roles during hematopoiesis, including stem-cell self-renewal, lineage commitment and terminal differentiation of monocytes. Analysis of Tet2 knockout mice, which are viable and fertile, demonstrated that Tet2 functions as a tumor suppressor whose haploinsufficiency initiates myeloid and lymphoid transformations. This review summarizes the recently identified TET2 physiological and pathological functions and discusses how this knowledge influences our therapeutic approaches in hematological malignancies and possibly other tumor types.
The primary disease process in myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia (MMM) is clonal myeloproliferation with varying degrees of phenotypic differentiation. This is characteristically accompanied by ...secondary intramedullary collagen fibrosis, osteosclerosis, angiogenesis, and extramedullary hematopoiesis. Modern clonality studies have confirmed the multipotent stem-cell origin of the neoplastic process in MMM. The nature of the specific oncogenic mutation(s) is currently being unraveled with the recent discovery of an association between a somatic point mutation of JAK2 tyrosine kinase (V617F) and bcr/abl-negative myeloproliferative disorders, including MMM. The pathogenetic mechanisms that underlie the secondary bone marrow stromal changes in MMM are also incompletely understood. Mouse models of this latter disease aspect have been constructed by either in vivo overexpression of thrombopoietin (TPOhigh mice) or megakaryocyte lineage restricted underexpression of the transcription factor GATA-1 (GATA-1low mice). Gene knockout experiments using such animal models have suggested the essential role of hematopoietic cell-derived transforming growth factor beta1 in inducing bone marrow fibrosis and stromal cell-derived osteoprotegerin in promoting osteosclerosis. However, experimental myelofibrosis in mice does not recapitulate clonal myeloproliferation that is fundamental to human MMM. Other cytokines that are implicated in mediating myelofibrosis and angiogenesis in MMM include basic fibroblast, platelet-derived, and vascular endothelial growth factors. It is currently assumed that such cytokines are abnormally released from clonal megakaryocytes as a result of a pathologic interaction with neutrophils (eg, emperipolesis). This latter phenomenon, through neutrophil-derived elastase, could also underlie the abnormal peripheral-blood egress of myeloid progenitors in MMM.
Calreticulin (CALR) mutations were recently described in JAK2 and MPL unmutated primary myelofibrosis (PMF) and essential thrombocythemia. In the current study, we compared the clinical, cytogenetic ...and molecular features of patients with PMF with or without CALR, JAK2 or MPL mutations. Among 254 study patients, 147 (58%) harbored JAK2, 63 (25%) CALR and 21 (8.3%) MPL mutations; 22 (8.7%) patients were negative for all three mutations, whereas one patient expressed both JAK2 and CALR mutations. Study patients were also screened for ASXL1 (31%), EZH2 (6%), IDH (4%), SRSF2 (12%), SF3B1 (7%) and U2AF1 (16%) mutations. In univariate analysis, CALR mutations were associated with younger age (P<0.0001), higher platelet count (P<0.0001) and lower DIPSS-plus score (P=0.02). CALR-mutated patients were also less likely to be anemic, require transfusions or display leukocytosis. Spliceosome mutations were infrequent (P=0.0001) in CALR-mutated patients, but no other molecular or cytogenetic associations were evident. In multivariable analysis, CALR mutations had a favorable impact on survival that was independent of both DIPSS-plus risk and ASXL1 mutation status (P=0.001; HR 3.4 for triple-negative and 2.2 for JAK2-mutated). Triple-negative patients also displayed inferior LFS (P=0.003). The current study identifies 'CALR(-)ASXL1(+)' and 'triple-negative' as high-risk molecular signatures in PMF.
In 1951, William Dameshek described the concept of 'myeloproliferative disorders (MPDs)' by grouping together chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocythemia ...(ET), primary myelofibrosis (PMF) and erythroleukemia; he reasoned that a self-perpetuating trilineage myeloproliferation underlined their pathogenesis. Pre-Dameshek luminaries who laid the foundation for this unifying concept include Bennett, Virchow, Heuck, Vaquez, Osler, Di Guglielmo and Epstein. In 1960, Nowell and Hungerford discovered the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome in CML. In 1967, Fialkow and colleagues used X-linked polymorphisms to establish CML as a clonal stem cell disease. Also in 1967, the PV Study Group was summoned by Louis Wasserman to study the natural history of PV and conduct large-scale clinical trials. In 1972, Janet Rowley deciphered the Ph chromosome as a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22, thus paving the way for its subsequent characterization as an oncogenic BCR-ABL mutation. In 1996, Brian Druker discovered imatinib-a small molecule ABL inhibitor with exceptional therapeutic activity in CML. In 2005, a gain-of-function JAK2 mutation (JAK2V617F) was described in BCR-ABL-negative MPDs, raising the prospect of a CML-like treatment strategy in PV, ET and PMF. The current review considers these and other landmark events in the history of MPDs.
Disease-specific mutations facilitate diagnostic precision and drug target discovery. In myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), this is best exemplified by the chronic myeloid leukemia-associated ...BCR-ABL1. No other mutation in MPN has thus far shown a similar degree of diagnostic accuracy or therapeutic relevance. However, JAK2 and KIT mutations are detected in more than 90% of patients with polycythemia vera and systemic mastocytosis, respectively, and are therefore used as highly sensitive clonal markers in these diseases. JAK2 and MPL mutations also occur in essential thrombocythemia (ET) and primary myelofibrosis (PMF), but their diagnostic value is limited by suboptimal sensitivity and specificity. The molecular diagnostic gap in JAK2/MPL-unmutated ET/PMF is now partially addressed by the recent discovery of calreticulin (CALR) mutations in the majority of such cases. However, bone marrow morphology remains the central diagnostic platform and is essential for distinguishing ET from prefibrotic PMF and diagnosing patients those do not express JAK2, MPL or CALR (triple-negative). The year 2013 was also marked by the description of CSF3R mutations in the majority of patients with chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL). Herein, we argue for the inclusion of CALR and CSF3R mutations in the World Health Organization classification system for ET/PMF and CNL, respectively.
Chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) is a clonal stem cell disorder associated with peripheral blood monocytosis and an inherent tendency to transform to acute myeloid leukemia. CMML has ...overlapping features of myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative neoplasms. Clonal cytogenetic changes are seen in ~30%, whereas gene mutations are seen in >90% of patients. Common cytogenetic abnormalities include; trisomy 8, -Y, -7/del(7q), trisomy 21 and del(20q), with the Mayo-French risk stratification effectively risk stratifying patients based on cytogenetic abnormalities. Gene mutations frequently involve epigenetic regulators (TET2 ~60%), modulators of chromatin (ASXL1 ~40%), spliceosome components (SRSF2 ~50%), transcription factors (RUNX1 ~15%) and signal pathways (RAS ~30%, CBL ~15%). Of these, thus far, only nonsense and frameshift ASXL1 mutations have been shown to negatively impact overall survival. This has resulted in the development of contemporary, molecularly integrated (inclusive of ASXL1 mutations) CMML prognostic models, including Molecular Mayo Model and the Groupe Français des Myélodysplasies model. Better understanding of the prevalent genetic and epigenetic dysregulation has resulted in emerging targeted treatment options for some patients. The development of an integrated (cytogenetic and molecular) prognostic model along with CMML-specific response assessment criteria are much needed future goals.
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