This document is a summary of a report prepared by the IEEE PES Task Force (TF) on Microgrid Stability Definitions, Analysis, and Modeling, IEEE Power and Energy Society, Piscataway, NJ, USA, Tech. ...Rep. PES-TR66, Apr. 2018, which defines concepts and identifies relevant issues related to stability in microgrids. In this paper, definitions and classification of microgrid stability are presented and discussed, considering pertinent microgrid features such as voltage-frequency dependence, unbalancing, low inertia, and generation intermittency. A few examples are also presented, highlighting some of the stability classes defined in this paper. Further examples, along with discussions on microgrid components modeling and stability analysis tools can be found in the TF report.
Historically, distribution system planning studies mainly focused on steady state and quasi-steady state analysis, with limited attention paid to dynamic analysis. This paper develops three-phase, ...electromechanical models for both grid-forming and grid-following inverters, and integrates them into an open source, three-phase distribution network solver, thereby enabling dynamic simulation of large-scale, three-phase unbalanced distribution systems with high penetration of inverter-based DERs. The proposed inverter models are validated against electromagnetic simulation and field test data from the CERTS/AEP microgrid testbed, and simulated in an islanded 5252 node distribution system in the GridLAB-D simulation environment. Simulation verifies the effectiveness of the proposed inverter models for large-scale distribution system analysis. Study results show that compared to traditional grid-following inverters, the high penetration of grid-forming inverters can improve the voltage and frequency stability of islanded distribution systems.
Individual microgrids have proven their ability to provide uninterrupted power to critical end-use loads during severe events. Building on the performance of individual microgrids during extreme ...events, there has been an increasing interest in the operations of network microgrids. By networking microgrids during extreme events, it is possible to share resources, increase the duration for which they can operate islanded, improve efficiency, and increase the resiliency of critical end-use loads. While there are benefits to networking the operations of resiliency-based microgrids, the switching operations that they require introduce transients, which can result in a loss of dynamic stability. The issue of dynamic stability is especially acute in microgrids with high penetrations of inverter-connected generation, and correspondingly low system inertia. While the low inertia of these microgrids can be increased by over-sizing the rotating generators, the increased capital and operating costs can become a barrier to deployment. This paper will present a method of augmenting primary frequency controls to support the switching transients necessary for the operation of networked microgrids, without the need to over-size rotating machines.
Historically, two similar grid-forming droop controls are widely reported in literature-the single-loop and multi-loop droop controls. Although being very similar, the authors find that the dynamic ...performance and stability characteristics of each control method are very different in a microgrid. Compared with the single-loop droop control, the multi-loop droop control is prone to be less damped and loses stability more easily under some circumstances. This article provides a novel insight into the different dynamic responses of the two basic controls. It points out that the two similar controls adjust the angular frequency and voltage magnitude at different locations within the inverter, resulting in different coupling reactances that impact the dynamic response and stability of microgrids differently. The use of the single-loop droop control results in a larger coupling reactance, which helps improve the dynamic response and stability. This novel insight is verified through full-order small-signal analysis, offline electromagnetic transient simulation, and real-time hardware-in-the-loop simulation experiments. The results show that the microgrid has a larger small-signal stability boundary when using single-loop droop control, and this difference increases as the value of an inverter's inner filter inductance increases.
Regulated electricity utilities are required to provide safe and reliable service to their customers at a reasonable cost. To balance the objectives of reliable service and reasonable cost, utilities ...build and operate their systems to operate under typical historic conditions. As a result, when abnormal events such as major storms or disasters occur, it is not uncommon to have extensive interruptions in service to the end-use customers. Because it is not cost effective to make the existing electrical infrastructure 100% reliable, society has come to expect disruptions during abnormal events. However, with the increasing number of abnormal weather events, the public is becoming less tolerant of these disruptions. One possible solution is to deploy microgrids as part of a coordinated resiliency plan to minimize the interruption of power to essential loads. This paper evaluates the feasibility of using microgrids as a resiliency resource, including their possible benefits and the associated technical challenges. A use-case of an operational microgrid is included.
Changes in economic, technological, and environmental policies are resulting in a re-evaluation of the dependence on large central generation facilities and their associated transmission networks. ...Emerging concepts of smart communities/cities are examining the potential to leverage cleaner sources of generation, as well as integrating electricity generation with other municipal functions. When grid connected, these generation assets can supplement the existing interconnections with the bulk transmission system, and in the event of an extreme event, they can provide power via a collection of microgrids. To achieve the highest level of resiliency, it may be necessary to conduct switching operations to interconnect individual microgrids. While the interconnection of multiple microgrids can increase the resiliency of the system, the associated switching operations can cause large transients in low inertia microgrids. The combination of low system inertia and IEEE 1547 and 1547a-compliant inverters can prevent multiple microgrids from being interconnected during extreme weather events. This paper will present a method of using end-use loads equipped with grid friendly appliance controllers to facilitate the switching operations between multiple microgrids; operations that are necessary for optimal operations when islanded for resiliency.
During a major outage in a secondary network distribution system, distributed generators (DGs) connected to the primary feeders as well as the secondary network can be used to serve critical loads. ...This paper proposed a resilience-oriented method to determine restoration strategies for secondary network distribution systems after a major disaster. Technical issues associated with the restoration process are analyzed, including the operation of network protectors, inrush currents caused by the energization of network transformers, synchronization of DGs to the network, and circulating currents among DGs. A look-ahead load restoration framework is proposed, incorporating technical issues associated with secondary networks, limits on DG capacity and generation resources, dynamic constraints, and operational limits. The entire outage duration is divided into a sequence of periods. Restoration strategies can be adjusted at the beginning of each period using the latest information. Numerical simulation of the modified IEEE 342-node low voltage networked test system is performed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Distribution utilities around the world have begun deploying dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs) to improve the power quality for end-use consumers. While these devices normally operate to improve power ...quality, the sensing and control they use can be leveraged to provide additional operation benefits. This paper describes a supplemental control for DVRs that enables them to improve the primary frequency response of microgrids through regulating voltage-dependent loads. The control strategy has been tested on a commercially available DVR to demonstrate the practicality. Furthermore, to examine the impacts on full-size, medium-voltage microgrids that typically have thousands of nodes, an electromechanical model of the DVR has been developed and compared with experimental results. Simulation in a modified, islanded IEEE 8500 Node Test Feeder with 15 DVRs shows that the supplemental control can effectively improve the primary frequency response of microgrids. From the industry application perspective, the proposed supplemental control expands the functionality of DVRs from only improving power quality to including frequency regulation. Therefore, the DVRs deployed in microgrids not only can compensate for voltage disturbances, but also can stabilize the system frequency.
This article describes a positive-sequence model to represent two widely reported droop-controlled grid-forming inverters for transmission system transient stability simulation studies. Methods of ...how to develop the equivalent voltage source behind impedance to represent inverters with and without inner control loops, modeling of P-f and Q-V droop controls, active and reactive power limiting modeling, and modeling of fault current limiting controls have been described in detail. The model was implemented in commercially available positive-sequence simulation tools and compared with detailed electromagnetic transient models in both a single-grid-forming-inverter infinite-bus system and a modified IEEE 39-bus system. Finally, the model was tested on the U.S. Western Interconnection system. The study results showed that the model has a good level of accuracy compared to the detailed EMT models, and at the same time also achieves a high computational efficiency, making it suitable for large-scale transmission system simulation studies.
Microgrids have repeatedly demonstrated the ability to provide uninterrupted service to critical end-use loads during normal outages, severe weather events, and natural disasters. While their ability ...to provide critical services is well documented, microgrids present a more dynamic operational environment than grid-connected distribution systems. The electrodynamics of a microgrid are commonly driven by the high inertia of rotating generators, which are common in many microgrids. In such high-inertia systems, the impact of end-use load electromechanical dynamics are often not examined. However, with the increased penetration of inverter-based generation with little or no inertia, it is necessary to consider the impact that the dynamics of the end-use loads have on the operations of microgrids, particularly for a resiliency-based operation. These operations include, but are not limited to, switching operations, loss of generating units, and the starting of induction motors. This paper examines the importance of including multi-state electromechanical dynamic models of the end-use load when evaluating the operations of low inertia microgrids, and shows that by properly representing their behavior, it is possible to cost effectively size equipment while supporting resilient operations of critical end-use loads.
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