Context. Dust formation is thought to play an important role in the mass loss from stars at the asymptotic giant branch (AGB); however, where and how dust forms is still open to debate. Aims. We ...present visible polarimetric imaging observations of the well-studied AGB star W Hya taken with VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL as well as high spectral resolution long-baseline interferometric observations taken with the AMBER instrument at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). Our goal is to spatially resolve the dust and molecule formation region within a few stellar radii. Methods. We observed W Hya with VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL at three wavelengths in the continuum (645, 748, and 820 nm), in the Hα line at 656.3 nm, and in the TiO band at 717 nm. The VLTI/AMBER observations were carried out in the wavelength region of the CO first overtone lines near 2.3 μm with a spectral resolution of 12000. Results. Taking advantage of the polarimetric imaging capability of SPHERE-ZIMPOL combined with the superb adaptive optics performance, we succeeded in spatially resolving three clumpy dust clouds located at ~50 mas (~2 R⋆) from the central star, revealing dust formation very close to the star. The AMBER data in the individual CO lines suggest a molecular outer atmosphere extending to ~3 R⋆. Furthermore, the SPHERE-ZIMPOL image taken over the Hα line shows emission with a radius of up to ~160 mas (~7 R⋆). We found that dust, molecular gas, and Hα-emitting hot gas coexist within 2–3 R⋆. Our modeling suggests that the observed polarized intensity maps can reasonably be explained by large (0.4–0.5 μm) grains of Al2O3, Mg2SiO4, or MgSiO3 in an optically thin shell (τ550nm = 0.1 ± 0.02) with an inner and outer boundary radius of 1.9–2.0 R⋆ and 3 ± 0.5R⋆, respectively. The observed clumpy structure can be reproduced by a density enhancement of a factor of 4 ± 1. Conclusions. The grain size derived from our modeling of the SPHERE-ZIMPOL polarimetric images is consistent with the prediction of the hydrodynamical models for the mass loss driven by the scattering due to micron-sized grains. The detection of the clumpy dust clouds close to the star lends support to the dust formation induced by pulsation and large convective cells as predicted by the 3D simulations for AGB stars.
Dust around active galactic nuclei (AGNs) is distributed over a wide range of spatial scales and can be observed in the infrared (IR). These observations are difficult to reconcile with the standard ...interpretation that most of the parsec-scale mid-IR emission in AGNs originate from the torus and challenges the justification of using simple torus models to model the broadband IR emission. Here, we report detailed interferometry observations of the unobscured (type 1) AGN in NGC 3783 that allow us to constrain the size, elongation, and direction of the mid-IR emission with high accuracy. Based on this SED, we determine covering factors for the hot and warm dust components of C sub(hot) = 0.42 super(+0.42) sub(-0.21)and C sub(warm) = 0.92 super(+0.92) sub(-0.46), respectively. We conclude that these observations support a scenario where the majority of the mid-IR emission in Seyfert AGNs originate from a dusty wind in the polar region of the AGN.
We are now exploring the inner region of type 1 active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with the Keck interferometer in the near-infrared. Adding to the four targets previously studied, we report measurements ...of the K-band (2.2 μm) visibilities for four more targets, namely AKN120, IC 4329A, Mrk6, and the radio-loud QSO 3C 273 at z = 0.158. The observed visibilities are quite high for all the targets, which we interpret as an indication of the partial resolution of the dust sublimation region. The effective ring radii derived from the observed visibilities scale approximately with L1/2, where L is the AGN luminosity. Comparing the radii with those from independent optical-infrared reverberation measurements, these data support our previous claim that the interferometric ring radius is either roughly equal to or slightly larger than the reverberation radius. We interpret the ratio of these two radii for a given L as an approximate probe of the radial distribution of the inner accreting material. We show tentative evidence that this inner radial structure might be closely related to the radio-loudness of the central engine. Finally, we re-observed the brightest Seyfert 1 galaxy NGC 4151. Its marginally higher visibility at a shorter projected baseline, compared to our previous measurements obtained one year before, further supports the partial resolution of the inner structure. We did not detect any significant change in the implied emission size when the K-band flux was brightened by a factor of 1.5 over a time interval of one year.
Advancements in infrared (IR) interferometry open up the possibility to spatially resolve active galactic nuclei (AGNs) on the parsec-scale level and study the circumnuclear dust distribution, ...commonly referred to as the "dust torus," that is held responsible for the type 1/type 2 dichotomy of AGNs. We used the mid-IR beam combiner MIDI together with the 8 m telescopes at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer to observe the nucleus of the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 424, achieving an almost complete coverage of the uv-plane accessible by the available telescope configurations. We detect extended mid-IR emission with a relatively baseline- and model-independent mid-IR half-light radius of (2.0 + or - 0.2) pc x (1.5 + or - 0.3) pc (averaged over the 8-13 mu m wavelength range). The extended mid-IR source shows an increasing size with wavelength. These properties are in agreement with the idea of dust heated in thermal equilibrium with the AGN. The orientation of the major axis in position angle ~ - 27 is closely aligned with the system axis as set by optical polarization observations. Torus models typically favor extension along the mid-plane at mid-IR wavelengths instead. Therefore, we conclude that the majority of the parsec-scale mid-IR emission (> ~60%) in this type 2 AGN originates from optically thin dust in the polar region of the AGN, a scenario consistent with the near- to far-IR spectral energy distribution. We suggest that a radiatively driven dusty wind, possibly launched in a puffed-up region of the inner hot part of the torus, is responsible for the polar dust. In this picture, the torus dominates the near-IR emission up to about 5 mu m, while the polar dust is the main contributor to the mid-IR flux. Our results of NGC 424 are consistent with recent observations of the AGN in the Circinus galaxy and resemble large-scale characteristics of other objects. If our results reflect a general property of the AGN population, the current paradigm for interpreting and modeling the IR emission of AGNs has to be revised.
Abstract
The long-period, highly eccentric Wolf-Rayet star binary system WR 140 has exceptionally well-determined orbital and stellar parameters. Bright, variable X-ray emission is generated in ...shocks produced by the collision of the winds of the WC7pd+O5.5fc component stars. We discuss the variations in the context of the colliding-wind model using broadband spectrometry from the RXTE, Swift, and NICER observatories obtained over 20 yr and nearly 1000 observations through three consecutive 7.94 yr orbits, including three periastron passages. The X-ray luminosity varies as expected with the inverse of the stellar separation over most of the orbit; departures near periastron are produced when cooling shifts to excess optical emission in C
iii
λ
5696 in particular. We use X-ray absorption to estimate mass-loss rates for both stars and to constrain the system morphology. The absorption maximum coincides closely with the inferior conjunction of the WC star and provides evidence of the ion-reflection mechanism that underlies the formation of collisionless shocks governed by magnetic fields probably generated by the Weibel instability. Comparisons with
K
-band emission and He
i
λ
10830 absorption show that both are correlated after periastron with the asymmetric X-ray absorption. Dust appears within a few days of periastron, suggesting formation within shocked gas near the stagnation point. The X-ray flares seen in
η
Car have not occurred in WR 140, suggesting the absence of large-scale wind inhomogeneities. Relatively constant soft emission revealed during the X-ray minimum is probably not from recombining plasma entrained in outflowing shocked gas.
During their formation phase, stars gain most of their mass in violent episodic accretion events, such as observed in FU Orionis (FUor) and EXor stars. V346 Normae is a well-studied FUor that ...underwent a strong outburst beginning around 1980. Here, we report on photometric and spectroscopic observations, which show that the visual/near-infrared brightness has decreased dramatically between the 1990s and 2010 (ΔR ≈ 10.9 mag, ΔJ ≈ 7.8 mag and ΔK ≈ 5.8 mag). The spectral properties of this fading event cannot be explained by variable extinction alone, but indicate a drop in accretion rate by two to three orders of magnitude. This is the first time that a member of the FUor class has been observed to switch to a very low accretion phase. Remarkably, in the last few years (2011–2015) V346 Nor has brightened again at all near-infrared wavelengths, indicating the onset of a new outburst event. The observed behaviour might be consistent with the clustered luminosity bursts that have been predicted by recent gravitational instability and fragmentation models for the early stages of protostellar evolution. Given V346 Nor's unique characteristics (concerning outburst duration, repetition frequency and spectroscopic diagnostics), our results also highlight the need to revisit the FUor/EXor classification scheme.
A diversity of dusty AGN tori Burtscher, L; Meisenheimer, K; Tristram, K R W ...
Astronomy and astrophysics (Berlin),
10/2013, Volume:
558
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
The AGN-heated dust distribution is increasingly recognized not only as the absorber required in unifying models, but as a tracer for the reservoir that feeds the nuclear super-massive black hole. ...Yet, even its most basic structural properties are unknown for all but a few archetypical objects. In order to understand how the properties of AGN tori are related to feeding and obscuration, we need to resolve the matter distribution on parsec scales. Since most AGNs are unresolved in the mid-IR, even with the largest telescopes, we utilize the MID-infrared interferometric Instrument (MIDI) at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) that is sensitive to structures as small as a few milli-arcseconds. Variations in the relative contribution of extended dust in the narrow line region or heated by star formation vs. compact AGN-heated dust and non-thermal emission also have to be taken into account.
Recent observations of NGC 1068 and other AGN support the idea of a geometrically and optically thick dust torus surrounding the central supermassive black hole and accretion disk of AGN. In ...type 2 AGN, the torus is seen roughly edge-on, leading to obscuration of the central radiation source and a silicate absorption feature near $10~{\rm\mu m}$. While most of the current torus models distribute the dust smoothly, there is growing evidence that the dust must be arranged in clouds. We describe a new method for modeling near- and mid-infrared emission of 3-dimensional clumpy tori using Monte Carlo simulations. We calculate the radiation fields of individual clouds at various distances from the AGN and distribute these clouds within the torus region. The properties of the individual clouds and their distribution within the torus are determined from a theoretical approach of self-gravitating clouds close to the shear limit in a gravitational potential. We demonstrate that clumpiness in AGN tori can overcome the problem of over-pronounced silicate features. Finally, we present model calculations for the prototypical Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068 and compare them to recent high-resolution measurements. Our model is able to reproduce both the SED and the interferometric observations of NGC 1068 in the near- and mid-infrared.
Mapping the radial structure of AGN tori Kishimoto, M.; Hönig, S. F.; Antonucci, R. ...
Astronomy and astrophysics (Berlin),
12/2011, Volume:
536
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
We present mid-IR interferometric observations of six type 1 AGNs at multiple baseline lengths ranging from 27 m to 130 m, reaching high angular resolutions up to λ/B ~ 0.02 arcsec. For two of the ...targets, we have simultaneous near-IR interferometric measurements as well, taken within a week. We find that all the objects are partially resolved at long baselines in these IR wavelengths. The multiple-baseline data directly probe the radial distribution of the material on sub-pc scales. We show that for our sample, which is small but spans over ~2.5 orders of magnitudes in the UV/optical luminosity L of the central engine, the radial distribution clearly and systematically changes with luminosity. The brightness distribution at a given mid-IR wavelength seems to be rather well described by a power law, which makes a simple Gaussian or ring size estimation quite inadequate. In this case, a half-light radius R1/2 can be used as a representative size. We show that the higher luminosity objects become more compact in normalized half-light radii R1/2/Rin in the mid-IR, where Rin is the dust sublimation radius empirically given by the L1/2 fit of the near-IR reverberation radii. This means that, contrary to previous studies, the physical mid-IR emission size (e.g. in pc) is not proportional to L1/2, but increases with L much more slowly. With our current datasets, we find that R1/2 ∝ L0.21 ± 0.05 at 8.5 μm, and R1/2 nearly constant at 13 μm. The derived size information also seems to correlate with the properties of the total flux spectrum, in particular the smaller R1/2/Rin objects having bluer mid-IR spectral shape. We use a power-law temperature/density gradient model as a reference, and infer that the radial surface density distribution of the heated dust grains at a radius r changes from a steep ~r-1 structure in high luminosity objects to a shallower ~r0 structure in those of lower luminosity. The inward dust temperature distribution does not seem to smoothly reach the sublimation temperature – on the innermost scale of ~Rin, a relatively low temperature core seems to co-exist with a slightly distinct brightness concentration emitting roughly at the sublimation temperature.
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