Causation is a foundational concept in tort law: in claims for compensation, a claimant must demonstrate that the defendant was a cause of the injury suffered in order for compensation to be awarded. ...Proof of Causation in Tort Law provides a critical, comparative and theoretical analysis of the general proof rules of causation underlying the tort laws of England, Germany and France, as well as the exceptional departures from these rules which each system has made. Exploring the different approaches to uncertainty over causation in tort law, Sandy Steel defends the justifiability of some of these exceptions, and categorises and examines the kinds of exceptional rules suggested by the case law and literature. Critically engaged with both the theoretical literature and current legal doctrine, this book will be of interest to private law scholars, judges and legal practitioners.
As part of their corporate social responsibility, many organizations practice cause-related marketing, in which organizations donate to a chosen cause with every consumer purchase. The extant ...literature has identified the importance of the fit between the organization and the nature of the cause in influencing corporate image, as well as the influence of a connection between the cause and consumer preferences on brand attitudes and brand choice. However, prior research has not addressed which cause composition most appeals to consumers or the impact of cause choice on corporate image. A between-subjects field experiment in the Netherlands examines the influence of three core cause attributes—cause type, cause scope, and cause acuteness—on consumers' perceptions of corporate image. Furthermore, this experiment examines the extent to which consumer identification with the cause mediates the influence of the cause attributes on corporate image. The findings indicate that identification with the cause leads to more positive evaluations of marketing campaigns for cause type and cause scope. Also, however, our results uncover a negative direct relationship between cause scope and corporate image. Cause acuteness is only marginally influential in corporate image perceptions. By proposing and testing a comprehensive model of the influence of cause attributes on corporate image in cause-related marketing, this article provides important implications and suggests avenues for further research.
Defends and transforms naturalism and materialism to show how culture itself is formed by nature. Bryant endorses a pan-ecological theory of being, arguing that societies are ecosystems that can only ...be understood by considering nonhuman material agencies such as rivers and mountain ranges alongside signifying agencies such as discourses, narratives and ideologies.
Aim
Studies have found that periodontal disease and tooth loss are associated with increased mortality; however, associations with cause‐specific mortality and all‐cause mortality within specific ...subgroups have not been thoroughly investigated.
Materials and methods
We examined the association of self‐reported periodontal disease and disease/decay‐related tooth loss with subsequent all‐cause and cause‐specific mortality in the Sister Study, a prospective cohort study of 50,884 women aged 35–74 years at baseline, whose sister was diagnosed with breast cancer. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for the associations were calculated with adjustment for relevant confounders.
Results
With a mean follow‐up of 10.9 years (range 0.1–14.3), 2058 women died. Participants with periodontal disease had a slightly higher rate of all‐cause mortality (HR = 1.08, 95% CI 0.98–1.19), while participants with tooth loss had an increased rate of all‐cause mortality (HR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.05–1.26). For cause‐specific mortality, women with tooth loss had increased rates of death from circulatory system diseases, respiratory system diseases, and endocrine/metabolic diseases. Results varied in stratified models, but no heterogeneity across strata was found.
Conclusions
In this large prospective study, periodontal disease and tooth loss were associated with all‐cause and certain specific cause‐specific mortality outcomes.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to construct a conceptual framework of the effects of customer engagement on cause-related marketing (CRM), with the goal of providing a solid scientific ...foundation for the development and stimulation of future research on the critical intersection of these two topics.
Design/methodology/approach
The research defines customer engagement in CRM campaigns as the conditions under which consumers are allowed to choose the cause that receives the donation, the cause proximity (geographical proximity) and the type of donation in a CRM campaign.
Findings
The paper conceptualizes the role of customer engagement in enhancing the effectiveness of a CRM campaign, in terms of coverage, customization and reduced consumer skepticism, as well as in triggering positive word-of-mouth (WOM) persuasion behaviors.
Practical implications
The conceptual framework provides several practicable directions toward effective control of CRM campaign outcomes, for both local and global firms.
Originality/value
The paper rests on established empirical foundations to develop a comprehensive preliminary multi- disciplinary framework on the subject, setting the path for further research in the fields of CRM, customer engagement and
International Business Research
, and reaching findings of both scholarly and executive worth.
This note examines an unexplored area of cause-related marketing: the influence of the cause category on consumer perceptions. The experiment shows that the four cause categories which represent the ...domain of charitable causes can have a differential effect on attitudes and purchase intention. The health cause category and human services cause category have a greater effect on attitude toward the cause than the animal or environmental cause categories when brand familiarity and cause importance were high. Only the human services category has a greater effect on attitude toward the alliance when brand familiarity and cause importance were high as well as when both were low. For attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions, there were no differences among the cause categories.
Abstract Background The burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remains unclear in many regions of the world. Objectives The GBD (Global Burden of Disease) 2015 study integrated data on disease ...incidence, prevalence, and mortality to produce consistent, up-to-date estimates for cardiovascular burden. Methods CVD mortality was estimated from vital registration and verbal autopsy data. CVD prevalence was estimated using modeling software and data from health surveys, prospective cohorts, health system administrative data, and registries. Years lived with disability (YLD) were estimated by multiplying prevalence by disability weights. Years of life lost (YLL) were estimated by multiplying age-specific CVD deaths by a reference life expectancy. A sociodemographic index (SDI) was created for each location based on income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility. Results In 2015, there were an estimated 422.7 million cases of CVD (95% uncertainty interval: 415.53 to 427.87 million cases) and 17.92 million CVD deaths (95% uncertainty interval: 17.59 to 18.28 million CVD deaths). Declines in the age-standardized CVD death rate occurred between 1990 and 2015 in all high-income and some middle-income countries. Ischemic heart disease was the leading cause of CVD health lost globally, as well as in each world region, followed by stroke. As SDI increased beyond 0.25, the highest CVD mortality shifted from women to men. CVD mortality decreased sharply for both sexes in countries with an SDI >0.75. Conclusions CVDs remain a major cause of health loss for all regions of the world. Sociodemographic change over the past 25 years has been associated with dramatic declines in CVD in regions with very high SDI, but only a gradual decrease or no change in most regions. Future updates of the GBD study can be used to guide policymakers who are focused on reducing the overall burden of noncommunicable disease and achieving specific global health targets for CVD.
Abstract
Background
The extent to which known and unknown factors explain how much people of the same age differ in disease risk is fundamental to epidemiology. Risk factors can be correlated in ...relatives, so familial aspects of risk (genetic and non-genetic) must be considered.
Development
We present a unifying model (VALID) for variance in risk, with risk defined as log(incidence) or logit(cumulative incidence). Consider a normally distributed risk score with incidence increasing exponentially as the risk increases. VALID’s building block is variance in risk, Δ2, where Δ = log(OPERA) is the difference in mean between cases and controls and OPERA is the odds ratio per standard deviation. A risk score correlated r between a pair of relatives generates a familial odds ratio of exp(rΔ2). Familial risk ratios, therefore, can be converted into variance components of risk, extending Fisher’s classic decomposition of familial variation to binary traits. Under VALID, there is a natural upper limit to variance in risk caused by genetic factors, determined by the familial odds ratio for genetically identical twin pairs, but not to variation caused by non-genetic factors.
Application
For female breast cancer, VALID quantified how much variance in risk is explained—at different ages—by known and unknown major genes and polygenes, non-genomic risk factors correlated in relatives, and known individual-specific factors.
Conclusion
VALID has shown that, while substantial genetic risk factors have been discovered, much is unknown about genetic and familial aspects of breast cancer risk especially for young women, and little is known about individual-specific variance in risk.
Comparable data on the global and country-specific burden of neurological disorders and their trends are crucial for health-care planning and resource allocation. The Global Burden of Diseases, ...Injuries, and Risk Factors (GBD) Study provides such information but does not routinely aggregate results that are of interest to clinicians specialising in neurological conditions. In this systematic analysis, we quantified the global disease burden due to neurological disorders in 2015 and its relationship with country development level.
We estimated global and country-specific prevalence, mortality, disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), years of life lost (YLLs), and years lived with disability (YLDs) for various neurological disorders that in the GBD classification have been previously spread across multiple disease groupings. The more inclusive grouping of neurological disorders included stroke, meningitis, encephalitis, tetanus, Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron disease, migraine, tension-type headache, medication overuse headache, brain and nervous system cancers, and a residual category of other neurological disorders. We also analysed results based on the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a compound measure of income per capita, education, and fertility, to identify patterns associated with development and how countries fare against expected outcomes relative to their level of development.
Neurological disorders ranked as the leading cause group of DALYs in 2015 (250·7 95% uncertainty interval (UI) 229·1 to 274·7 million, comprising 10·2% of global DALYs) and the second-leading cause group of deaths (9·4 9·1 to 9·7 million, comprising 16·8% of global deaths). The most prevalent neurological disorders were tension-type headache (1505·9 UI 1337·3 to 1681·6 million cases), migraine (958·8 872·1 to 1055·6 million), medication overuse headache (58·5 50·8 to 67·4 million), and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias (46·0 40·2 to 52·7 million). Between 1990 and 2015, the number of deaths from neurological disorders increased by 36·7%, and the number of DALYs by 7·4%. These increases occurred despite decreases in age-standardised rates of death and DALYs of 26·1% and 29·7%, respectively; stroke and communicable neurological disorders were responsible for most of these decreases. Communicable neurological disorders were the largest cause of DALYs in countries with low SDI. Stroke rates were highest at middle levels of SDI and lowest at the highest SDI. Most of the changes in DALY rates of neurological disorders with development were driven by changes in YLLs.
Neurological disorders are an important cause of disability and death worldwide. Globally, the burden of neurological disorders has increased substantially over the past 25 years because of expanding population numbers and ageing, despite substantial decreases in mortality rates from stroke and communicable neurological disorders. The number of patients who will need care by clinicians with expertise in neurological conditions will continue to grow in coming decades. Policy makers and health-care providers should be aware of these trends to provide adequate services.
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
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