The Mythical Number Two Melnikoff, David E.; Bargh, John A.
Trends in cognitive sciences,
April 2018, 2018-04-00, 20180401, Volume:
22, Issue:
4
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
It is often said that there are two types of psychological processes: one that is intentional, controllable, conscious, and inefficient, and another that is unintentional, uncontrollable, ...unconscious, and efficient. Yet, there have been persistent and increasing objections to this widely influential dual-process typology. Critics point out that the ‘two types’ framework lacks empirical support, contradicts well-established findings, and is internally incoherent. Moreover, the untested and untenable assumption that psychological phenomena can be partitioned into two types, we argue, has the consequence of systematically thwarting scientific progress. It is time that we as a field come to terms with these issues. In short, the dual-process typology is a convenient and seductive myth, and we think cognitive science can do better.
The distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 processing has grown more popular each decade.
The World Bank and Institute of Medicine issued reports in 2015 endorsing the Type 1/Type 2 distinction, and urging decision makers and medical practitioners around the globe to rely on Type 2 thinking.
A consensus is emerging among the critics and top proponents of the dual-process typology that the classic distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 processing is flawed.
Since the Type 1/Type 2 distinction first emerged, researchers have discovered that very few processes fit into either category, most possess some mixture of Type 1 and Type 2 features.
Prior studies have documented incumbency advantage for electoral candidates. A largely unrelated strand of literature has shown that perceived competence of candidates, as inferred from their ...physical appearance, also predicts their electoral success. We draw upon the framework of statistical discrimination and the dual‐system theory of human cognition to understand the relationship between a political candidate's vote share, physical appearance, and incumbency status. Voters possess relatively richer information about incumbents compared to challengers. Perceived competence of candidates, as inferred from their physical appearance, is therefore expected to have a relatively weaker influence on voters' decisions to vote for incumbents. Data from Australian state elections support this prediction.
Action, Outcome, and Value Cushman, Fiery
Personality and social psychology review,
08/2013, Volume:
17, Issue:
3
Journal Article
Dual-system approaches to psychology explain the fundamental properties of human judgment, decision making, and behavior across diverse domains. Yet, the appropriate characterization of each system ...is a source of debate. For instance, a large body of research on moral psychology makes use of the contrast between “emotional” and “rational/cognitive” processes, yet even the chief proponents of this division recognize its shortcomings. Largely independently, research in the computational neurosciences has identified a broad division between two algorithms for learning and choice derived from formal models of reinforcement learning. One assigns value to actions intrinsically based on past experience, while another derives representations of value from an internally represented causal model of the world. This division between action- and outcome-based value representation provides an ideal framework for a dual-system theory in the moral domain.
The phycosphere is a unique niche that fosters complex interactions between microalgae and associated bacteria. The formation of this extracellular environment, and the associated bacterial ...biodiversity, is heavily influenced by the secretion of extracellular polymers, primarily driven by phototrophic organisms. The exopolysaccharides (EPS) represent the largest fraction of the microalgae‐derived exudates, which can be specifically used by heterotrophic bacteria as substrates for metabolic processes. Furthermore, it has been proposed that bacteria and their extracellular factors play a role in both the release and composition of the EPS. In this study, two model microorganisms, the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum CCAP 1055/15 and the bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125, were co‐cultured in a dual system to assess how their interactions modify the phycosphere chemical composition by analyzing the EPS monosaccharide profile released in the culture media by the two partners. We demonstrate that microalgal–bacterial interactions in this simplified model significantly influenced the architecture of their extracellular environment. We observed that the composition of the exo‐environment, as described by the EPS monosaccharide profiles, varied under different culture conditions and times of incubation. This study reports an initial characterization of the molecular modifications occurring in the extracellular environment surrounding two relevant representatives of marine systems.
The estimated number of youth who come into contact with both the child welfare and juvenile justice systems, or “dual system” youth, varies widely because studies use different methodologies. Recent ...work using linked administrative data shows promise for identifying a stable range of dual system rates, generalizable to other jurisdictions and useful for understanding the nature and timing of system involvement.
This study replicates the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) Dual System Youth Design Study methodology to explore dual system overlap and six distinct dual system pathways defined by the type (i.e., nonconcurrent or concurrent) and timing (i.e., first contact with child welfare or juvenile justice) of dual system contact in Los Angeles County.
Using data from the Los Angeles Probation Department, a cohort of youth born in/after 1998 with a first juvenile justice petition between 2014 and 2016 was identified (N = 6877) and matched to statewide child welfare records between 1998 and 2017.
Descriptive statistics were produced for dual system youth and pathways, and differences across groups were tested using chi-square and t-tests.
Two-thirds of youth with a first juvenile justice petition interacted with the child welfare system. The majority of dual system youth did not have contact with both systems at the same time and nearly all dual system youth were involved with the child welfare system before the juvenile justice system. Female and Black youth were more likely to be dual system youth and to have more extensive involvement with the child welfare system. Probation experiences and outcomes were associated with the nature and chronicity of child welfare involvement.
Implementing a delinquency prevention continuum that starts with community-based supports and continues throughout all levels of child welfare and juvenile justice involvement is essential to disrupting dual system involvement.
Attribute-based encryption mechanism can achieve very flexible access control, so it has a wide range of applications in the distributed environment, such as fine-grained access control, audit log ...applications, cloud storage systems. Key-policy attribute-based encryption (KP-ABE) scheme is especially suitable for video on demand, pay TV, etc. Most of the existing KP-ABE schemes do not consider the side channel attacks which probably leak some secret information about the cryptosystems. In the paper, we present the formal definition and security model of key-policy attribute-based encryption scheme which is resilient to continual auxiliary input (CAI) leakage. What is more, we present a concrete KP-ABE scheme. The proposed scheme is proved secure under the static assumptions.
Identity-based broadcast encryption (IBBE) is an important type of broadcast encryption. In the paper, we put forward the formal definition and security model of IBBE with leakage-resilience. ...Furthermore, we propose an IBBE scheme with continuous leakage-resilience. The presented scheme is resilient to private key leakage. By refreshing the private key, our scheme can resist continuous private key leakage. Based on dual system encryption technique, we prove the security of the proposed scheme under subgroup decisional assumptions. We give the specific performance analysis of leakage-resilience. The relative leakage ratio can amount to 1/3.
Scores on the three-item Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) have been linked with dual-system theory and normative decision making (Frederick, 2005). In particular, the CRT is thought to measure ...monitoring of System 1 intuitions such that, if cognitive reflection is high enough, intuitive errors will be detected and the problem will be solved. However, CRT items also require numeric ability to be answered correctly and it is unclear how much numeric ability vs. cognitive reflection contributes to better decision making. In two studies, CRT responses were used to calculate Cognitive Reflection and numeric ability; a numeracy scale was also administered. Numeric ability, measured on the CRT or the numeracy scale, accounted for the CRT's ability to predict more normative decisions (a subscale of decision-making competence, incentivized measures of impatient and risk-averse choice, and self-reported financial outcomes); Cognitive Reflection contributed no independent predictive power. Results were similar whether the two abilities were modeled (Study 1) or calculated using proportions (Studies 1 and 2). These findings demonstrate numeric ability as a robust predictor of superior decision making across multiple tasks and outcomes. They also indicate that correlations of decision performance with the CRT are insufficient evidence to implicate overriding intuitions in the decision-making biases and outcomes we examined. Numeric ability appears to be the key mechanism instead.
Problematic use of social networking sites (SNS) and its adverse consequences have become prevalent, yet little is known about the conceptualization and etiology of problematic use of SNS. This study ...draws on dual-system theory (DST), borrowed from cognitive neuroscience (also known as reflective-impulsive theory of the mind and fast and slow thinking) to investigate what drives this phenomenon. The statistical analyses of time-lagged data collected from 341 Facebook users implicate an imbalance between two systems in the human mind, involving strong cognitive-emotional preoccupation with using the SNS (System 1, impulsive) and weak cognitive-behavioral control over using the SNS (System 2, reflective), as the driver of problematic SNS use behaviors. Problematic use of SNS, in turn, diminishes users' academic performance. This study contributes to research on the dark side of information systems (IS) use by conceptualizing problematic use and explaining its drivers and consequences. It demonstrates that the dual-system theory is an appropriate theoretical perspective for explaining problematic IS use, superior to planned-behavior-based models. It also explains some of the precursors of the dual system factors and offers practical implications to information technology artifact designers and users.
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