1.
2.
Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis
Witold Kołłątaj; Irena Dorota Karwat; Barbara Kołłątaj ...
Journal of education, health and sport,
06/2016, Volume:
6, Issue:
6
Journal Article
Kołłątaj Witold, Karwat Irena Dorota, Kołłątaj Barbara, Piecewicz-Szczęsna Halina, Sowa Magda. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i ...
instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis. Kołłątaj Witold, Karwat Irena Dorota, Kołłątaj Barbara, Piecewicz-Szczęsna Halina, Sowa Magda. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(6):318-328. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55608 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3585 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Received: 05.05.2016. Revised 25.05.2016. Accepted: 10.06.2016. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis Witold Kołłątaj1, Irena Dorota Karwat2, Barbara Kołłątaj2, Halina Piecewicz‑Szczęsna2, Magda Sowa3 1Klinika Endokrynologii i Diabetologii Dziecięcej, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 2Katedra i Zakład Epidemiologii i Metodologii Badań Klinicznych, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 3Katedra i Zakład Zdrowia Publicznego, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie Adres do korespondencji: dr hab. n. med. Witold Kołłątaj Klinika Endokrynologii i Diabetologii Dziecięcej z Pracownią Metaboliczną UM w Lublinie ul. Profesora Antoniego Gębali 6, 20-093 Lublin e-mail: wk@data.pl Słowa kluczowe: nowotwory, profilaktyka, kobiety, opinie, metaanaliza. Keywords: cancer prevention, women, opinions, meta-analysis. Streszczenie Wstęp Choroby nowotworowe od wielu lat stanowią w Polsce drugą przyczynę zgonów. Co roku, z tego powodu, umiera niemal 100 000 osób, a liczba zgonów ma tendencję rosnącą. Wyniki leczenia nowotworów w Polsce są gorsze, niż w krajach Europy, diagnostyka często spóźniona, a profilaktyka niewystarczająco skuteczna. W celu poprawy stanu zdrowa społeczeństwa, rosną nakłady na leczenie i profilaktykę. W Polsce profilaktykę koordynuje Narodowy Program Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych. Cel pracy Celem pracy jest próba rzetelnej oceny stanu profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce, uwzględniającej opinie zarówno organów odpowiedzialnych za ochronę zdrowia, lekarzy, organów kontroli, jak i pacjentów. Materiał i metody Materiał stanowiły sprawozdania podmiotów odpowiedzialnych za realizację profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet, akty prawne, publikacje naukowe oceniające realizację profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce oraz dane z Audytu Społecznego Narodowych Programów Profilaktyki Nowotworowej. Wyniki i omówienie Ministerstwo Zdrowia oraz Narodowy Fundusz Zdrowia publikują dane, które podkreślają osiągnięcia profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce, natomiast opinie fachowych pracowników służby zdrowia (wyrażone w konkluzji realizowanych prac badawczych) oraz pacjentów wskazują na znaczne dysproporcje między założeniami programów profilaktycznych a ich faktyczną realizacją. Wśród niedociągnięć wymieniane są przede wszystkim niewystarczające działania edukacyjne, niedociągnięcia organizacyjne (nieuwzględnianie w harmonogramie badań grafiku pracy pacjentek, niewłaściwe informowanie o terminach badań, błędy w dystrybucji wezwań na badanie, nieprzyjazne kobietom warunki badania) oraz inne czynniki, które kobiety określają, jako podważające zaufanie do jakości badania. Najwięcej negatywnych emocji budzi stan komunikacji z grupami docelowymi kobiet oraz zaniedbania z zakresu edukacji. Wnioski • Optymistyczne oceny osiągnieć Narodowego Programu Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych ogłoszone przez Ministerstwo Zdrowia nie znajdują pełnego pokrycia w opiniach zarówno organów kontrolnych, pacjentów, jak i środowiska medycznego. • Liczne negatywne oceny programów profilaktycznych oraz sugestie głębokich reform Narodowego Programu Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych nie mają wpływu na plany Ministerstwa Zdrowia. • Celowym wydaje się analiza przyczyn takiego stanu rzeczy, kiedy to opinie świata nauki, wyrażane między innymi w publikacjach naukowych, nie skłaniają Ministerstwa Zdrowia do refleksji lub przynajmniej do wszczęcia polemiki ze środowiskiem naukowym i lekarzami praktykami. Summary Introduction For many last years, neoplastic diseases have been the second cause of death in Poland. Every year, such diseases are the reasons for almost 100 000 cases of death. The mortality because of neoplasms has got the increasing tendency. The results of cancer treatment in Poland are worse than in many European countries, diagnoses often delayed and the prevention insufficiently effective. In order to improve the health status of Polish population, the expenditures on treatment and prevention have been slightly raised. In Poland, the prevention is coordinated by the National Cancer Control Program. Aim The aim of the study was the assessment of cancer prevention in women in Poland, taking into account opinions of both Polish Ministry of Health, audit institutions, patients and the medical community. Material and methods The material consists of the reports of entities responsible for the implementation of cancer prevention in women, legislative acts, scientific publications evaluating the implementation of the prevention of cancer in women in Poland as well as data from the National Social Audit Program Cancer Prevention. Results and Discussion While the Ministry of Health and the National Health Fund publish data that highlight the achievements, medical community's opinions (expressed as the conclusions of ongoing researches) as well as the opinions of patients show a significant disparity between the objectives of prevention programs and their actual implementations. Among mentioned shortcomings there are: educational and organizational negligence (working hours of facilities dealing with the prevention are coinciding with the working hours of women, incorrect information about the terms of preventive procedures, improper schemes of distribution of calls for screenings, embarrassing and unpleasant conditions of screenings) as well as other factors that women define as those that prejudice them to take part in such medical procedures. The most negative emotions concern the mechanisms of communication between screening centers and the target groups of women and educational negligence. Conclusions 1. The optimistic assessment of achievements of the National Cancer Control Program proclaimed by the Polish Ministry of Health are not fully covered in the opinions of audit institutions, patients and the medical community. 2. Numerous negative opinions concerning prevention programs and suggestions of deep reform of the National Cancer Control Program have no effect on the plans of the Polish Ministry of Health. 3. It seems appropriate to analyze the causes of this state of affairs, when the opinions expressed by medical community, among others, published as scientific publications, do not tend to reflect the Ministry of Health, or at least to initiate a polemic with the medical-scientific experts and practitioners. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(6):318-328. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55608 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3585 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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3.
Pametna ploča i školski uspjeh s obzirom na proces integracije tehnologije u nastavu: istraživanje o MkP
Batdi, Veli
Croatian Journal of Education,
09/2017, Volume:
19, Issue:
3
Paper
Cilj je ovog istraživanja utvrditi kakav je učinak primjene pametnih ploča (PP) na školski uspjeh, polazeći od multikomplementarnog pristupa (MkP). Istraživanje je provedeno u tri faze: prva je faza ...
obuhvaćala metaanalizu i uvid u teme na temelju pregleda dokumenata da bi se dobili pretkomplementarni podatci i tako utvrdile postojeće praznine; u drugoj se fazi razmatrao proces dobivanja postkomplementarnih podataka da bi se eliminirale utvrđene praznina; treća je faza podrazumijevala integraciju rezultata iz prethodnih dviju faza i davanje preporuka za dobivanje komplementarnih podataka. S tim su ciljevima provedene metaanaliza i analiza tema, odnosno proveden je eksperimentalni dio istraživanja. Spomenuti je proces proveden u trima fazama, a obuhvaćao je rezultate kvalitativne i kvantitativne obrade podataka kao doprinos valjanosti i pouzdanosti istraživanja.
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5.
Boards of directors, audit committees and financial reporting quality. A systematic review
Karolina Skorulska; Dorota Dobija
Zeszyty teoretyczne rachunkowości,
12/2016, Volume:
2016, Issue:
90 (146)
Journal Article
Measurement of financial reporting quality is a problematic task because financial reporting is difficult to observe and measure. The aim of the article is to present the methods of financial ...
reporting quality meas-urement and a systematic review of literature on the effects of corporate governance reforms on the qualityof financial reporting. The main research questions are: (1) what are the possibilities of measuring financial reporting for research purposes, (2) which of the methods of measuring the quality of financial reporting are used in research on corporate governance, and (3) which variables used in measuring corporate gov-ernance factors affect financial reporting quality? To answer these questions, a critical analysis of literature and a systematic review of research results using meta-analysis was made. For selecting the best articles a three-step collection strategy was used, which resulted in a database of 38 publications. The review has shown that for measuring the quality of financial reporting researchers most frequently use models based on measurement of risk management, and the most common independent variables describing corporate governance are: the size of the audit committee, presence of independent directors on the supervisory board, dual role of CEO, proportion of independent directors in the audit committee, size of the supervisory board, proportion of accounting experts in the audit committee, and frequency of audit committee meetings
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6.
Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis
Witold Kołłątaj; Irena Dorota Karwat; Barbara Kołłątaj ...
Journal of education, health and sport,
06/2016, Volume:
6, Issue:
6
Journal Article
Kołłątaj Witold, Karwat Irena Dorota, Kołłątaj Barbara, Piecewicz-Szczęsna Halina, Sowa Magda. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i ...
instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis. Kołłątaj Witold, Karwat Irena Dorota, Kołłątaj Barbara, Piecewicz-Szczęsna Halina, Sowa Magda. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza = Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(6):318-328. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55608 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3585 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Received: 05.05.2016. Revised 25.05.2016. Accepted: 10.06.2016. Profilaktyka nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce. Sukces, czy niepowodzenie? Opinie pacjentów, lekarzy i instytucji odpowiedzialnych za stan zdrowia – metaanaliza Prevention of cancer in women in Poland. Success or failure? Opinions of patients, physicians and institutions responsible for health – meta-analysis Witold Kołłątaj1, Irena Dorota Karwat2, Barbara Kołłątaj2, Halina Piecewicz‑Szczęsna2, Magda Sowa3 1Klinika Endokrynologii i Diabetologii Dziecięcej, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 2Katedra i Zakład Epidemiologii i Metodologii Badań Klinicznych, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 3Katedra i Zakład Zdrowia Publicznego, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie Adres do korespondencji: dr hab. n. med. Witold Kołłątaj Klinika Endokrynologii i Diabetologii Dziecięcej z Pracownią Metaboliczną UM w Lublinie ul. Profesora Antoniego Gębali 6, 20-093 Lublin e-mail: wk@data.pl Słowa kluczowe: nowotwory, profilaktyka, kobiety, opinie, metaanaliza. Keywords: cancer prevention, women, opinions, meta-analysis. Streszczenie Wstęp Choroby nowotworowe od wielu lat stanowią w Polsce drugą przyczynę zgonów. Co roku, z tego powodu, umiera niemal 100 000 osób, a liczba zgonów ma tendencję rosnącą. Wyniki leczenia nowotworów w Polsce są gorsze, niż w krajach Europy, diagnostyka często spóźniona, a profilaktyka niewystarczająco skuteczna. W celu poprawy stanu zdrowa społeczeństwa, rosną nakłady na leczenie i profilaktykę. W Polsce profilaktykę koordynuje Narodowy Program Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych. Cel pracy Celem pracy jest próba rzetelnej oceny stanu profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce, uwzględniającej opinie zarówno organów odpowiedzialnych za ochronę zdrowia, lekarzy, organów kontroli, jak i pacjentów. Materiał i metody Materiał stanowiły sprawozdania podmiotów odpowiedzialnych za realizację profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet, akty prawne, publikacje naukowe oceniające realizację profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce oraz dane z Audytu Społecznego Narodowych Programów Profilaktyki Nowotworowej. Wyniki i omówienie Ministerstwo Zdrowia oraz Narodowy Fundusz Zdrowia publikują dane, które podkreślają osiągnięcia profilaktyki nowotworów u kobiet w Polsce, natomiast opinie fachowych pracowników służby zdrowia (wyrażone w konkluzji realizowanych prac badawczych) oraz pacjentów wskazują na znaczne dysproporcje między założeniami programów profilaktycznych a ich faktyczną realizacją. Wśród niedociągnięć wymieniane są przede wszystkim niewystarczające działania edukacyjne, niedociągnięcia organizacyjne (nieuwzględnianie w harmonogramie badań grafiku pracy pacjentek, niewłaściwe informowanie o terminach badań, błędy w dystrybucji wezwań na badanie, nieprzyjazne kobietom warunki badania) oraz inne czynniki, które kobiety określają, jako podważające zaufanie do jakości badania. Najwięcej negatywnych emocji budzi stan komunikacji z grupami docelowymi kobiet oraz zaniedbania z zakresu edukacji. Wnioski • Optymistyczne oceny osiągnieć Narodowego Programu Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych ogłoszone przez Ministerstwo Zdrowia nie znajdują pełnego pokrycia w opiniach zarówno organów kontrolnych, pacjentów, jak i środowiska medycznego. • Liczne negatywne oceny programów profilaktycznych oraz sugestie głębokich reform Narodowego Programu Zwalczania Chorób Nowotworowych nie mają wpływu na plany Ministerstwa Zdrowia. • Celowym wydaje się analiza przyczyn takiego stanu rzeczy, kiedy to opinie świata nauki, wyrażane między innymi w publikacjach naukowych, nie skłaniają Ministerstwa Zdrowia do refleksji lub przynajmniej do wszczęcia polemiki ze środowiskiem naukowym i lekarzami praktykami. Summary Introduction For many last years, neoplastic diseases have been the second cause of death in Poland. Every year, such diseases are the reasons for almost 100 000 cases of death. The mortality because of neoplasms has got the increasing tendency. The results of cancer treatment in Poland are worse than in many European countries, diagnoses often delayed and the prevention insufficiently effective. In order to improve the health status of Polish population, the expenditures on treatment and prevention have been slightly raised. In Poland, the prevention is coordinated by the National Cancer Control Program. Aim The aim of the study was the assessment of cancer prevention in women in Poland, taking into account opinions of both Polish Ministry of Health, audit institutions, patients and the medical community. Material and methods The material consists of the reports of entities responsible for the implementation of cancer prevention in women, legislative acts, scientific publications evaluating the implementation of the prevention of cancer in women in Poland as well as data from the National Social Audit Program Cancer Prevention. Results and Discussion While the Ministry of Health and the National Health Fund publish data that highlight the achievements, medical community's opinions (expressed as the conclusions of ongoing researches) as well as the opinions of patients show a significant disparity between the objectives of prevention programs and their actual implementations. Among mentioned shortcomings there are: educational and organizational negligence (working hours of facilities dealing with the prevention are coinciding with the working hours of women, incorrect information about the terms of preventive procedures, improper schemes of distribution of calls for screenings, embarrassing and unpleasant conditions of screenings) as well as other factors that women define as those that prejudice them to take part in such medical procedures. The most negative emotions concern the mechanisms of communication between screening centers and the target groups of women and educational negligence. Conclusions 1. The optimistic assessment of achievements of the National Cancer Control Program proclaimed by the Polish Ministry of Health are not fully covered in the opinions of audit institutions, patients and the medical community. 2. Numerous negative opinions concerning prevention programs and suggestions of deep reform of the National Cancer Control Program have no effect on the plans of the Polish Ministry of Health. 3. It seems appropriate to analyze the causes of this state of affairs, when the opinions expressed by medical community, among others, published as scientific publications, do not tend to reflect the Ministry of Health, or at least to initiate a polemic with the medical-scientific experts and practitioners. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(6):318-328. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55608 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3585 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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8.
Genetski doprinos individualnim razlikama u subjektivnoj dobrobiti: metaanaliza
Vukasovic, Tena; Filozofski, Butkovic
Društvena istraživanja,
01/2012, Volume:
21, Issue:
1
Journal Article, Paper
Cilj ove metaanalize bio je sistematizirati postojece znanje o genetskom doprinosu individualnim razlikama u subjektivnoj dobrobiti (eng. subjective well-being) te dati smjernice za buduca ...
istrazivanja. Subjektivna dobrobit predstavlja tendenciju ka pozitivnim kognitivnim i afektivnim evaluacijama vlastita zivot. Dosadasnja istrazivanja na podrucju genetike ponasanja pokazala su da su individualne razlike u subjektivnoj dobrobiti dijelom genetski posredovane. Ovisno o metodologiji (nacrt, mjerni instrument, statisticka obradba), postoje odredene varijacije u indeksima heritabilnosti. U okviru metaanalize definirani su kriteriji ukljucivanja i iskljucivanja primarnih istrazivanja, provedeno je pretrazivanje literature te je identificirano 14 primarnih istrazivanja. Pet istrazivanja moralo je biti iskljuceno iz analize zbog zavisnih uzoraka. Prosjecan indeks heritabilnosti subjektivne dobrobiti pokazuje da se oko 39% (k=10, Q(df=9) = 241,32, p---0,0001) varijance fenotipa subjektivne dobrobiti moze pripisati genetskim doprinosima. Nakon pro- vodenja korekcije za pristranost u objavljivanju, 32% (k=12, Q(df=11)=392,83, p---0,0001) varijance fenotipa subjektivne dobrobiti moze se pripisati genetskim doprinosima. Razmotrene su smjernice za buduca primarna istrazivanja i ogranicenja ove metaanalize. Kljucne rijeci: metaanaliza, heritabilnost, subjektivna dobrobit, zadovoljstvo zivotom, genetika ponasanja
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10.
Kognitivne spolne razlike: jučer, danas, sutra
Matešić, Krunoslav; Zarevski, Predrag
Društvena istraživanja,
10/2010, Volume:
19, Issue:
108+109
Journal Article
Cognitive gender differences are analyzed in this paper. The article covers major studies from early 20th century to the most recent studies of meta-analyses. It is focused on those studies whose aim ...
was to investigate the differences in the g factor and closer intelligence factors dependent on gender. Studies investigating the varying development of intelligence in pre-adolescent and adolescent age groups in relation to gender are also presented. The paper clearly shows the problems faced by investigators in their attempts to measure intelligence and draw conclusions on the difference of intelligence between the sexes. The causes of inconsistency should be sought in different operationalizations of constructs on which comparisons are based. The only common conclusion is that males regularly show a greater distribution of intelligence measures, i.e. they are more evenly distributed at the ends of the scale, while females show a more narrow distribution curve. The only larger difference in favour of males is some visual-spatial abilities which are not showing any tendency to decrease. Some verbal abilities are more pronounced in women, with a trend toward the reduction of these differences. Cognitive gender differences are investigated more frequently in terms of cognitive processes and less as intelligence factors. Finally, the conclusion is that studies should focus on the search for similarities among the sexes, as 78% of meta-analyses yielded negligible differences and only 8% of cases revealed large differences.
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