Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts
1997
) proposes that women from Western cultures are widely portrayed and treated as objects of the male gaze, leading to the development of ...self-objectification, in which girls and women internalize these societal messages and view their own bodies as objects to be evaluated according to narrow standards of (often sexualized) attractiveness. Prompted by findings from the American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (APA
2007
), the present study considers girls’ clothing as a possible socializing influence that may contribute to the development of self-objectification in preteen girls. Accordingly, in this content analysis, we examined the frequency and nature of “sexualizing” clothing available for girl children (generally sizes 6–14) on the websites of 15 popular stores in the US. Sexualizing clothing was defined as clothing that revealed or emphasized a sexualized body part, had characteristics associated with sexiness, and/or had sexually suggestive writing. Clothing was also coded for childlike characteristics, such as child-like fabric (e.g., polka dot pattern) or a modest, non-revealing cut. Across all stores and all articles of clothing, 69% of the clothing items were coded as having only childlike characteristics, 4% as having only sexualizing characteristics, 25.4% as having both sexualizing and childlike characteristics, and 1% as having neither sexualizing nor childlike characteristics. “Tween” stores like
Abercrombie Kids
had the highest proportion of sexualizing clothing. The findings are discussed within the framework of the development of self-objectification.
Gender and advertising research have often centered on gender stereotypes, most of which emphasize the representation of women as 'sex objects'. The representation of men in sexual stereotypes are ...often not dealt with, even though an increasing number of advertisements are now showing men as sex objects. In its contribution to gender, language and advertising research, this study looks at how men are represented in sexual stereotypes (not in print media or from the West, which have often been the focus) in Ghanaian radio commercials. Using a Feminist Critical Discursive Approach, six adverts on products for sexual potency are examined. Through the analyses of various linguistic forms, the results show that 'manliness' is equated with sexual power, and this is a reproduction of the traditional male power stereotype, that is, the expectation that men are to be powerful. However, this power is subverted since it needs the 'approval' of women, thereby representing women as equally powerful (if not more powerful).
This review begins with a summary of the chapters in Shirley See Yan Ma's book, Foot-binding: A Jungian Engagement with Chinese Culture and Psychology. This book explores the Chinese historical, ...cultural, mythological, and philosophical background of the ancient custom of footbinding, which was practiced for ten centuries beginning about 1000 BCE. The author also narrates case histories from her practice to demonstrate how the unconscious of these women still harbors the psychological implications of footbinding, although their feet were not literally bound. This book is a valuable addition to Jungian literature that is committed to exploring lasting cultural archetypes, with serious implications for women's psychology not only in modern China but anywhere.
Estela Welldon's analyses of female violence show that we cannot understand any violence, including that of men, without understanding that of women. Past research has identified shame and ...humiliation as a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of violence. Why, then, are women not more violent than men since they are often treated as inferior to men? Because both sexes are honoured for conforming to the gender role into which they are socialized, and are shamed for behaving in ways assigned to the other sex. Men are honoured for being perpetrators and victims of violence, and hence ‘violence‐objects’, and shamed for non‐violence. Women, by contrast, are honoured for sexual chastity and non‐violence, and shamed for having sex outside marriage, behaving violently, or in any other way behaving like a man. They thus become ‘sex‐objects’ (having renounced their sexual subjectivity), and will become violent only if (like Medea), they have already been shamed so severely and irretrievably that they have nothing more to lose by resorting to violence.
This study examined whether exposure to TV ads that portray women as sex objects causes increased body dissatisfaction among women and men. Participants were exposed to 15 sexist and 5 nonsexist ads, ...20 nonsexist ads, or a no ad control condition. Results revealed that women exposed to sexist ads judged their current body size as larger and revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body sizes (preferring a thinner body) than women exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Men exposed to the sexist ads judged their current body size as thinner, revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body size (preferring a larger body), and revealed a larger discrepancy between their own ideal body size and their perceptions of others’ male body size preferences (believing that others preferred a larger ideal) than men exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Discussion focuses on the cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences of exposure to gender stereotypic television advertising.
