A multi-step process is proposed to break down Si modules and recover almost all the materials. New technologies are demonstrated for the recycling process including sequential electrowinning to ...recover multiple metals one by one from Si modules, Ag, Pb, Sn and Cu, and sheet resistance monitoring to maximize the amount of solar-grade Si recovered from Si modules. The recovered Si and metals are new feedstocks to the solar industry. They generate $11–12/module in revenue to cover the cost of recycling.
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•A multi-step process proposed for profitable recycling of wafer-Si solar modules.•Sequential electrowinning to extract valuable/toxic metals one by one from modules.•Sheet resistance monitoring to maximize the amount of solar-grade Si recovered.•Recovered Si and Ag are new feedstocks to the industry generating $11–12/module.
A major obstacle to sustainable solar technologies is end-of-life solar modules. In this paper, a recycling process is proposed for wafer-Si modules. It is a three-step process to break down Si modules and recover various materials, leaving behind almost nothing for landfill. Two new technologies are demonstrated to enable the proposed recycling process. One is sequential electrowinning which allows multiple metals to be recovered one by one from Si modules, Ag, Pb, Sn and Cu. The other is sheet resistance monitoring which maximizes the amount of solar-grade Si recovered from Si modules. The purity of the recovered metals is above 99% and the recovered Si meets the specifications for solar-grade Si. The recovered Si and metals are new feedstocks to the solar industry and generate $11–12.10/module in revenue. This revenue enables a profitable recycling business for Si modules without any government support. The chemicals for recycling are carefully selected to minimize their environmental impact. A network for collecting end-of-life solar modules is proposed based on the current distribution network for solar modules to contain the collection cost. As a result, the proposed recycling process for wafer-Si modules is technically, environmentally and financially sustainable.
Slot‐die coating holds advantages over other large‐scale technologies thanks to its potential for well‐controlled, high‐throughput, continuous roll‐to‐roll fabrication. Unfortunately, it is ...challenging to control thin.film uniformity over a large area while maintaining crystallization quality. Herein, by using a high‐pressure nitrogen‐extraction (HPNE) strategy to assist crystallization, a wide processing window in the well‐controlled printing process for preparing high‐quality perovskites is achieved. The yellow‐phase perovskite generated by the HPNE acts as a crucial intermediate phase to produce large‐area high‐quality perovskite film. Furthermore, an ionic liquid is developed to passivate the perovskite surface to reduce surface defect density and to suppress carrier recombination, resulting in significantly increased efficiency to 22.7%, the highest for large‐area fabrication. The strategies are successfully extended to large‐area device fabrication, making it possible to produce a 40 × 40 mm2 module with stabilized PCE as high as 19.4%, the highest‐efficiency for a large‐area module to date.
A high‐pressure nitrogen‐extraction strategy to drive the formation of a stable intermediate for uniform perovskite crystallization and an effective passivation strategy by utilizing an ionic liquid are reported. As such, the PCEs of a small‐area PSC and a large‐area PSC module are 22.7% and 19.6% respectively, representing a high level made using a large‐area fabrication process.
Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have become a potential candidate for clean and renewable photovoltaic productions. This work examines the current cost drivers and potential avenues to reduce costs for ...organic solar modules by constructing a comprehensive bottom‐up cost model. The direct manufacturing cost (MC) and the minimum sustainable price (MSP) for an opaque single solar module (SSM) (MC = 187 ¥ m−2, MSP = 297 ¥ m−2) and for a tandem solar module (MC = 224 ¥ m−2, MSP = 438 ¥ m−2) are analyzed in detail. Within this calculation, the most expensive layers and processing steps are identified and highlighted. Importantly, the low levelized cost of energy (LCOE) value for an SSM with a 10% power conversion efficiency in a 20‐year range from 0.185 to 0.486 ¥ kWh−1, with a national average of 0.324 ¥ kWh−1 in China under an average solar irradiance of 1200 kWh m−2 year−1. Moreover, the impact on the cost of alternative materials and constructions, process throughputs, module efficiency, and module lifetime, etc., is presented and avenues to further reduce the MSP and LCOE values are indicated. The analysis shows that OPVs can emerge as a competitive alternative to established power generation technologies if the remaining issues (e.g., active layer material cost, module efficiency, and lifetime) can be resolved.
Current cost drivers and potential avenues to reduce cost for organic solar modules by constructing a comprehensive bottom‐up cost model are examined. Moreover, the impact on the cost of alternative materials and constructions, process throughputs, module efficiency, and module lifetime, etc. is presented, and avenues for the further reduction of the minimum sustainable price and levelized cost of energy values are discussed.
With lower consumer prices and the boom in solar PV module sales there has been a rapid increase in the number of PV modules installed on roof tops. In some instances, noticeable changes in the ...visual appearance of these modules have been observed, such as the occurrence of 'snail trails' or microcracks or discolouration. These changes raise concerns that the modules may be defective or not performing as warranted. We have examined a number of these problematic modules and identified several common defects that have appeared on installations around Australia and the effect that these defects have on the output of the individual solar modules. Results from a series of studies of modules showing these defects have been systematised and presented in this paper.
The degradation of photovoltaic (PV) systems is one of the key factors to address in order to reduce the cost of the electricity produced by increasing the operational lifetime of PV systems. To ...reduce the degradation, it is imperative to know the degradation and failure phenomena. This review article has been prepared to present an overview of the state-of-the-art knowledge on the reliability of PV modules. Whilst the most common technology today is mono- and multi-crystalline silicon, this article aims to give a generic summary which is relevant for a wider range of photovoltaic technologies including cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide and emerging low-cost high-efficiency technologies. The review consists of three parts: firstly, a brief contextual summary about reliability metrics and how reliability is measured. Secondly, a summary of the main stress factors and how they influence module degradation. Finally, a detailed review of degradation and failure modes, which has been partitioned by the individual component within a PV module. This section connects the degradation phenomena and failure modes to the module component, and its effects on the PV system. Building on this knowledge, strategies to improve the operational lifetime of PV systems and thus, to reduce the electricity cost can be devised. Through extensive testing and failure analysis, researchers now have a much better overview of stressors and their impact on long term stability.
•Review of reliability metrics and test methodologies for photovoltaic modules•Indicative mapping of relationships between stressors, components, failures and effects in PV modules.•Assessment on the impact of degradation and failure on LCOE and EPBT.•Review of design considerations for all components in a PV module regarding reliability.
Hole transport layers (HTLs) play a key role in perovskite solar cells (PSCs), particularly in the inverted PSCs (IPSCs) that demand more in its stability. In this study, samarium‐doped nickel oxide ...(Sm:NiOx) nanoparticles are synthesized via a chemical precipitation method and deposited as a hole transport layer in the IPSCs. Sm3+ doping can reduce the formation energy of Ni vacancy and naturally increase the density of Ni vacancies, thereby rendering increased hole density. Thenceforth, the electronic conductivity is enhanced significantly, and work function enlarged in the Sm:NiOx film in favor of extracting holes and suppressing charge recombination. Consequently, the Sm:NiOx‐based IPSCs attain outstanding power conversion efficiencies as high as 20.71%. Even when it is applied in flexible solar cells, it still outputs efficiency as high as 17.95%. More importantly, the Sm:NiOx is compatible with large‐scale processing whereby the large area IPSCs of 1.0 cm2 and 40 × 40 mm2 deliver high efficiencies of 18.51% and 15.27%, respectively, all are among the highest for the inorganic HTLs based IPSCs. This research demonstrates that, while revealing the doping effect in depth, Sm:NiOx can be a promising hole transport material for fabricating efficient, large‐area, and flexible IPSCs in the future.
Samarium doping nickel oxide (Sm:NiOx) reduces the formation energy of Ni vacancies and increases hole density. Thus, both electronic conductivity and work function are enlarged, favoring the extraction of holes and suppression of charge recombination. Eventually, Sm:NiOx‐based flexible and rigid inverted perovskite solar cells attain efficiencies of 17.95% and 20.71%, respectively. Importantly, it delivers high efficiency of 15.27% on a 40 × 40 mm2 module.
Bifacial solar photovoltaics (PV) is a promising mature technology that increases the production of electricity per square meter of PV module through the use of light absorption from the albedo. This ...review describes current state-of-the-art bifacial solar PV technology based on a comprehensive examination of nearly 400 papers published since 1979 (approximately 40% are referenced in this work) focused on illuminating additional research and development opportunities to enhance and assess performance and expand bifacial technology׳s overall contribution within a rapidly expanding global solar market. Research and development efforts on bifacial PV should continue to emphasize improved efficiency in cells, module reliability and deployment configuration of bifacial arrays in a PV plant to co-optimize front-backside energy production during the entire day for fixed and tracking systems. Research on improved conversion efficiencies associated with monofacial PV cells will also continue to benefit bifacial PV performance. Standardization of certification procedures for bifacial PV technology performance efficiency and expansion of niche applications is required to promote wider deployment worldwide.
Multijunction solar cells employing perovskite and crystalline‐silicon (c‐Si) light absorbers bear the exciting potential to surpass the efficiency limit of market‐leading single‐junction c‐Si solar ...cells. However, scaling up this technology and maintaining high efficiency over large areas are challenging as evidenced by the small‐area perovskite/c‐Si multijunction solar cells reported so far. In this work, a scalable four‐terminal multijunction solar module design employing a 4 cm2 semitransparent methylammonium lead triiodide perovskite solar module stacked on top of an interdigitated back contact c‐Si solar cell of identical area is demonstrated. With a combination of optimized transparent electrodes and efficient module design, the perovskite/c‐Si multijunction solar modules exhibit power conversion efficiencies of 22.6% on 0.13 cm2 and 20.2% on 4 cm2 aperture area. Furthermore, a detailed optoelectronic loss analysis along with strategies to enhance the performance is discussed.
A high‐efficient large‐area scalable perovskite/silicon four‐terminal multijunction solar module is presented. The four‐terminal perovskite/silicon multijunction photovoltaic devices are scaled up from a 0.13 cm2 cell‐on‐cell configuration to a 4 cm2 module‐on‐cell configuration while maintaining high efficiency. By using efficient solar module design and optimized electrodes, the scalability of four‐terminal perovskite/silicon multijunction photovoltaics is demonstrated.
The extraction of photovoltaic (PV) module parameters is regarded as a critical topic for assessing the performance of PV energy systems. The Supply-Demand-Based Optimization Algorithm (SDOA) is ...employed in this work to extract the unknown parameters of PV models. The SDOA mimics the stability and instability modes between the supply and the demand one in order thatthe quantity and price of commodities converge to the equilibrium point after a specified number of repetitions. It is frequently used to handle complicated nonlinear problems because of its ease of implementation and powerful optimization capabilities. The Triple-Diode Model (TDM) is extensively adopted in PV module mathematical models. The optimal nine TDM parameters are determined for the PVM 752GaAs PV thin film cell, whereas other solar irradiation and temperature values are used for the SQ 150 and MSX 60 modules. When used on the TDM model, the SDOA was used to verify the fitness values and standard deviation errors. Furthermore, the obtained result achieved by SDOA are contrasted with new techniques established in 2020 which are Backtracking Search Algorithm (BSA), Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO), Bernstein-Levy Search Differential Evolution Algorithm (BSDE), Crow search Optimizer (CSO), and Manta Ray Foraging Optimizer (MRFO). For accurate and consistent results, thirty runs of the algorithm are executed for the modules and the standard deviations of fitness values are less than 1 × 10–18for the triple diode model. In addition to this, a practical PV power plant system that lie in the Guizhou Power Grid of China is used to validate the efficiency of SDOA compared to other recent algorithms. Thus, SDOA is considered as a competitive optimizer among other reported techniques in the literature or recent techniques for PV parameter extraction.
All‐perovskite tandem solar cells offer the potential to surpass the Shockley–Queisser (SQ) limit efficiency of single‐junction solar cells while maintaining the advantages of low‐cost and ...high‐productivity solution processing. However, scalable solution processing of electron transport layer (ETL) in p‐i‐n structured perovskite solar subcells remains challenging due to the rough perovskite film surface and energy level mismatch between ETL and perovskites. Here, scalable solution processing of hybrid fullerenes (HF) with blade‐coating on both wide‐bandgap (≈1.80 eV) and narrow‐bandgap (≈1.25 eV) perovskite films in all‐perovskite tandem solar modules is developed. The HF, comprising a mixture of fullerene (C60), phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester, and indene‐C60 bisadduct, exhibits improved conductivity, superior energy level alignment with both wide‐ and narrow‐bandgap perovskites, and reduced interfacial nonradiative recombination when compared to the conventional thermal‐evaporated C60. With scalable solution‐processed HF as the ETLs, the all‐perovskite tandem solar modules achieve a champion power conversion efficiency of 23.3% (aperture area = 20.25 cm2). This study paves the way to all‐solution processing of low‐cost and high‐efficiency all‐perovskite tandem solar modules in the future.
Herein, an electron transport layer ink is designed using hybrid fullerenes composed of mixed C60, phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester, and indene‐C60 bisadduct. This electron transport layer exhibits high conductivity, good energy‐level alignment, and low interfacial nonradiative recombination. The all‐perovskite tandem solar modules achieve a champion power conversion efficiency of 23.3% (aperture area = 20.25 cm2).
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