In recent years, the study of heat to work conversion has been re-invigorated by nanotechnology. Steady-state devices do this conversion without any macroscopic moving parts, through steady-state ...flows of microscopic particles such as electrons, photons, phonons, etc. This review aims to introduce some of the theories used to describe these steady-state flows in a variety of mesoscopic or nanoscale systems. These theories are introduced in the context of idealized machines which convert heat into electrical power (heat-engines) or convert electrical power into a heat flow (refrigerators). In this sense, the machines could be categorized as thermoelectrics, although this should be understood to include photovoltaics when the heat source is the sun. As quantum mechanics is important for most such machines, they fall into the field of quantum thermodynamics. In many cases, the machines we consider have few degrees of freedom, however the reservoirs of heat and work that they interact with are assumed to be macroscopic. This review discusses different theories which can take into account different aspects of mesoscopic and nanoscale physics, such as coherent quantum transport, magnetic-field induced effects (including topological ones such as the quantum Hall effect), and single electron charging effects. It discusses the efficiency of thermoelectric conversion, and the thermoelectric figure of merit. More specifically, the theories presented are (i) linear response theory with or without magnetic fields, (ii) Landauer scattering theory in the linear response regime and far from equilibrium, (iii) Green–Kubo formula for strongly interacting systems within the linear response regime, (iv) rate equation analysis for small quantum machines with or without interaction effects, (v) stochastic thermodynamic for fluctuating small systems. In all cases, we place particular emphasis on the fundamental questions about the bounds on ideal machines. Can magnetic-fields change the bounds on power or efficiency? What is the relationship between quantum theories of transport and the laws of thermodynamics? Does quantum mechanics place fundamental bounds on heat to work conversion which are absent in the thermodynamics of classical systems?
Increasing the production of energy in line with industry development, transportation, and life quality improvement is an interesting topic needs to be addressed. Energy policymakers and researchers ...have aimed at energy management, particularly by improving energy systems performance. This review paper explains the rising interest of thermoelectric technology and applications. Nowadays, thermoelectric technology such as thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and thermoelectric cooling systems (TECs) provide heat loss recovery of thermodynamic units for power production of remote areas. Unlimited solar energy can also be employed for thermoelectric power production. This paper describes the principles of thermoelectricity and presents an explanation of current and upcoming materials. Developed models and various performed optimization of thermoelectric applications by using non-equilibrium thermodynamics and finite time thermodynamics are discussed as well. Additionally, a number of topical applications and energy resources are introduced. The main goal of this study is to give a clear overview of thermoelectric technology and applications.
•Explains the rising interest of thermoelectric technology and applications.•Describes thermoelectricity principles and current and upcoming materials.•Developed models and various performed optimization are discussed.•Includes non-equilibrium thermodynamics and finite time thermodynamics.•A number of topical applications and energy resources are introduced.
Phase-field method is a density-based computational method at the mesoscale for modeling and predicting the temporal microstructure and property evolution during materials processes. The focus of ...this article is on connecting the most common phase-field equations to the very basic first and second laws of classical thermodynamics through rudimentary irreversible thermodynamics. It briefly discusses the relations of the continuum phase-field equations to their counter parts at the microscopic and atomic levels. It attempts to clarify the contributions of long-range elastic, electrostatic, and magnetic interactions to domain structure evolution during structural, ferroelectric, and ferromagnetic phase transformations by separating order parameter changes due to the presence of quasi-static fields and those arising from phase transformations. A few examples are presented to demonstrate the possibility of employing the phase-field method to provide guidance to designing materials for optimum properties or discovering novel mesoscale phenomena or new materials functionalities. The article ends with a brief perspective on a number of potential future directions on the development and applications of phase-field method beyond its traditional applications to structural alloys.
The theory around the concept of finite time describes how processes of any nature can be optimized in situations when their rate is required to be non-negligible, i.e., they must come to completion ...in a finite time. What the theory makes explicit is “the cost of haste”. Intuitively, it is quite obvious that you drive your car differently if you want to reach your destination as quickly as possible as opposed to the case when you are running out of gas. Finite-time thermodynamics quantifies such opposing requirements and may provide the optimal control to achieve the best compromise. The theory was initially developed for heat engines (steam, Otto, Stirling, a.o.) and for refrigerators, but it has by now evolved into essentially all areas of dynamic systems from the most abstract ones to the most practical ones. The present collection shows some fascinating current examples.
Understanding in a unified manner the generic and chemically specific aspects of activated dynamics in diverse glass-forming liquids over 14 or more decades in time is a grand challenge in condensed ...matter physics, physical chemistry, and materials science and engineering. Large families of conceptually distinct models have postulated a causal connection with qualitatively different "order parameters" including various measures of structure, free volume, thermodynamic properties, short or intermediate time dynamics, and mechanical properties. Construction of a predictive theory that covers both the noncooperative and cooperative activated relaxation regimes remains elusive. Here, we test using solely experimental data a recent microscopic dynamical theory prediction that although activated relaxation is a spatially coupled local-nonlocal event with barriers quantified by local pair structure, it can also be understood based on the dimensionless compressibility via an equilibrium statistical mechanics connection between thermodynamics and structure. This prediction is found to be consistent with observations on diverse fragile molecular liquids under isobaric and isochoric conditions and provides a different conceptual view of the global relaxation map. As a corollary, a theoretical basis is established for the structural relaxation time scale growing exponentially with inverse temperature to a high power, consistent with experiments in the deeply supercooled regime. A criterion for the irrelevance of collective elasticity effects is deduced and shown to be consistent with viscous flow in low-fragility inorganic network-forming melts. Finally, implications for relaxation in the equilibrated deep glass state are briefly considered.
Epik version 7 is a software program that uses machine learning for predicting the pK a values and protonation state distribution of complex, druglike molecules. Using an ensemble of atomic graph ...convolutional neural networks (GCNNs) trained on over 42,000 pK a values across broad chemical space from both experimental and computed origins, the model predicts pK a values with 0.42 and 0.72 pK a unit median absolute and root mean square errors, respectively, across seven test sets. Epik version 7 also generates protonation states and recovers 95% of the most populated protonation states compared to previous versions. Requiring on average only 47 ms per ligand, Epik version 7 is rapid and accurate enough to evaluate protonation states for crucial molecules and prepare ultra-large libraries of compounds to explore vast regions of chemical space. The simplicity and time required for the training allow for the generation of highly accurate models customized to a program’s specific chemistry.
Quantum thermodynamics is an emerging research field aiming to extend standard thermodynamics and non-equilibrium statistical physics to ensembles of sizes well below the thermodynamic limit, in ...non-equilibrium situations and with the full inclusion of quantum effects. Fuelled by experimental advances and the potential of future nanoscale applications, this research effort is pursued by scientists with different backgrounds, including statistical physics, many-body theory, mesoscopic physics and quantum information theory, who bring various tools and methods to the field. A multitude of theoretical questions are being addressed ranging from issues of thermalisation of quantum systems and various definitions of 'work' to the efficiency and power of quantum engines. This overview provides a perspective on a selection of these current trends accessible to postgraduate students and researchers alike.
In this paper, we obtain analytical approximate black hole solutions in the framework of f(R) gravity and the absence of a cosmological constant. In this area, we apply the equations of motion of the ...theory to a spherically symmetric spacetime with one unknown function and derive black hole solutions without any constraints on the Ricci scalar. To do so, first, we obtain the near horizon and asymptotic solutions and then use both of them to obtain a complete solution by utilizing a continued-fraction expansion. Finally, we investigate the stability of the solutions by employing the thermodynamics and quasi-normal modes.
Multicomponent fluorides of rare earth elements (REEs—R) are phase transition-type negative thermal expansion (NTE-II) materials. NTE-II occurs in RFsub.3-R′Fsub.3 systems formed by “mother” ...single-component dimorphic RFsub.3 (R = Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd) with a giant NTE-II. There are two structural types of RFsub.3 polymorphic modifications: low-temperature β-YFsub.3 (β−) and high-temperature LaFsub.3 (t−). The change in a structural type is accompanied by a density anomaly: a volume of one formula unit (Vform) Vβsub.− >Vtsub.−. The empirical signs of volumetric changes ΔV/V of NTE-II materials were considered. For the GdFsub.3-TbFsub.3 model system, an “operating-temperature window ΔT” and a two-phase composition of NTE-II materials follows from the thermodynamics of chemical systems: the phase rule and the principle of continuity. A necessary and sufficient sign of NTE-II is a combination of polymorphism and the density anomaly. Isomorphism in RFsub.3-R′Fsub.3 systems modifies RFsub.3 chemically by forming two-component t− and β− type Rsub.1−xR’sub.xFsub.3solid solutions (ss). Between the two monovariant curves of ss decay, a two-phase area with ΔTsub.trans > 0 (the “window ΔT”) forms. A two-phase composite (t−ss + β−ss) is an NTE-II material. Its constituent t−ss and β−ss phases have different Vsub.form corresponding to the selected T. According to the lever rule on a conode, Vsub.form is calculated from the t−ss and β−ss compositions, which vary with T along two monovariant curves of ss decay. For the GdFsub.3-TbFsub.3 system, ΔV/V = f(T), ΔV/V = f(ΔT) and the “window ΔT” = f(x) dependencies were calculated.
Knowledge about the thermodynamic equilibria of the Psub.2Osub.5-Nasub.2O and Psub.2Osub.5-MgO systems is very important for controlling the phosphorus content of steel materials in the process of ...steelmaking dephosphorization. The phase equilibrium and thermodynamic data of the Psub.2Osub.5-Nasub.2O and Psub.2Osub.5-MgO systems were critically evaluated and re-assessed by the CALPHAD (CAlculation of PHAse Diagram) approach. The liquid phase was described by the ionic two-sublattice model for the first time with the formulas (Nasup.+1)sub.P(Osup.−2, POsub.3 sup.−1, POsub.4 sup.−3, POsub.5/2)sub.Q and (Mgsup.+2)sub.P(Osup.−2, POsub.3 sup.−1, POsub.4 sup.−3, POsub.5/2)sub.Q, respectively, and the selection of the species constituting the liquid phase was based on the structure of the phosphate melts. A new and improved self-consistent set of thermodynamic parameters for the Psub.2Osub.5-Nasub.2O and Psub.2Osub.5-MgO systems was finally obtained, and the calculated phase diagram and thermodynamic properties exhibited excellent agreement with the experimental data. The difference in the phase composition of invariant reactions from the experimentally determined values reported in the literature is less than 0.9 mol.%. The present thermodynamic modeling contributes to constructing a multicomponent oxide thermodynamic database in the process of steelmaking dephosphorization.
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