Because bicultural and biracial people have two identities within one social domain (culture or race), their identification is often challenged by others. Although it is established that identity ...denial is associated with poor psychological health, the processes through which this occurs are less understood. Across two high-powered studies, we tested identity autonomy, the perceived compatibility of identities, and social belonging as mediators of the relationship between identity denial and well-being among bicultural and biracial individuals. Bicultural and biracial participants who experienced challenges to their American or White identities felt less freedom in choosing an identity and perceived their identities as less compatible, which was ultimately associated with greater reports of depressive symptoms and stress. Study 2 replicated these results and measured social belonging, which also accounted for significant variance in well-being. The results suggest the processes were similar across populations, highlighting important implications for the generalizability to other dual-identity populations.
Bicultural and biracial individuals (those who identify either with two cultures or two races) are often denied membership in the groups with which they identify, an experience referred to as ...identity denial. The present studies used an experimental design to test the effects of identity denial on physiological and self‐reported stress, and naturalistic behavioral responses in a controlled laboratory setting for both bicultural (Study 1; N = 126) and biracial (Study 2; N = 119) individuals. The results suggest that compared to an identity‐irrelevant denial, bicultural participants who were denied their American identity and Minority/White biracial individuals who were denied their White identity reported greater stress and were more likely to verbally reassert their identity. Bicultural participants also demonstrated slower cortisol recovery compared to those in the identity‐irrelevant denial condition. The results are the first to highlight the negative physical health consequences of identity denial using an experimental design for both bicultural and biracial populations, underscoring the necessity to promote belongingness and acceptance.
Most research has investigated Multiracial and Multicultural populations as separate topics, despite demographic and experiential overlap between these. This Element bridges that divide by reviewing ...and comparing Multiracial and Multicultural research to date-their origins, theoretical and methodological development, and key findings in identity negotiation, socialization, and discrimination-to identify points of synthesis and differentiation to guide future research. It highlights challenges researchers face when studying these populations because such research topics necessitate that one moves beyond previous frameworks and theories to grapple with identity as flexible, malleable, and influenced both by internal factors and external perceptions. The areas of overlap and difference are meaningful and illustrate the social constructive nature of race and culture, which is always in flux and being re-defined.
Objective
Across four studies, we examined whether certain personality traits cue prejudice and serve as identity threat cues.
Background
Stigmatized group members may be vigilant to personality cues ...that signal prejudice.
Method
In Study 1 (N = 76), perceivers selected traits and behaviors associated with disagreeableness and closedness to experience as indicators of prejudice. In Studies 2–4, perceivers with stigmatized identities (Total N = 907) learned about a target person who was depicted as disagreeable or agreeable (Studies 2 and 3) and as disagreeable or another trait matched on perceived negativity (i.e., low in conscientiousness, Study 4).
Results
Participants perceived the disagreeable target as more discriminatory and hierarchy‐endorsing (Studies 2–4), more morally disengaged (Study 3), and more likely to discriminate against stigmatized identity groups (Studies 2 and 4) than the agreeable or low conscientious targets. The relationship between target disagreeableness and perceived discrimination was partially explained by higher perceived hierarchy endorsing beliefs (Studies 2–4) and perceived moral disengagement (Study 3).
Conclusions
This research finds that perceivers with stigmatized identities utilize target disagreeableness as a cue of identity threat, inferring that disagreeable people are more likely to be discriminatory, prejudicial, and hierarchy‐endorsing than agreeable and low conscientious people.
Many ethnic minorities in the United States hold both an ethnic minority and national American identity. Yet, they often encounter identity questioning when asked questions such as, “Where are you ...really from?,” which may operate as an ambiguous threat to their national identity. Because varied motivations (curiosity versus exclusion) create ambiguity, targets likely vary in their tendency to view identity questioning as prejudicial. Study 1 examined the extent to which ethnic minorities attribute identity questioning to prejudice, and the associated well‐being consequences. Study 2 examined the immigration policy‐oriented antecedents of identity questioning prejudice attributions. The results suggest that prejudice attributions are psychologically harmful (Study 1) and are associated with anti‐immigration policies (Study 2). Because identity questioning challenges one's ability to maintain a dual identity, it is important to better understand identity questioning. Specifically, these findings provide initial evidence of the role policy contexts may play in shaping identity questioning attributions.
A father's involvement in prenatal care engenders health benefits for both mothers and children. While this information can help practitioners improve family health, low paternal involvement in ...prenatal care remains a challenge. The present study tested a simple, easily scalable intervention to promote father involvement by increasing men's feelings of comfort and expectations of involvement in prenatal settings through three randomized control trials. Borrowing from social psychological theory on identity safety, the three studies tested whether the inclusion of environmental cues that represent men and fatherhood in prenatal care offices influenced men's beliefs and behavioral intentions during the perinatal period. Men in studies 1 and 3 viewed online videos of purported prenatal care offices, while men in study 2 visited the office in person. Those who viewed or were immersed in a father-friendly prenatal care office believed that doctors had higher expectations of father involvement compared to treatment-as-usual. This perception predicted greater parenting confidence, comfort, and behavioral intentions to learn about the pregnancy and engage in healthy habits, such as avoiding smoking and alcohol during their partner's pregnancy. Study 3 replicated these studies with an online sample of expectant fathers. The results suggest that shifting environment office cues can signal fathering norms to men in prenatal settings, with healthier downstream behavior intentions.
Two processes describe racially ambiguous Black/White Biracial categorization—the one‐drop rule, or hypodescent, whereby racially ambiguous people are categorized as members of their socially ...subordinated racial group (i.e., Black/White Biracial faces categorized as Black) and the ingroup overexclusion effect, whereby racially ambiguous people are categorized as members of a salient outgroup, regardless of the group's status. Without developmental research with racially diverse samples, it is unclear when these categorization patterns emerge. Study 1 included White, Black, and racially diverse Biracial children (aged 3‐ to 7‐years) and their parents to test how racial group membership and social context influence face categorization biases. To provide the clearest test of hypodescent and ingroup overexclusion, White participants came from majority White neighborhoods and Black participants from majority Black neighborhoods (with Biracial participants from more racially diverse neighborhoods)—two samples with prominent racial ingroups. Study 2 aimed to replicate the parent findings with a separate sample of White, Black, Black/White Biracial, and Asian adults. Results suggest the ingroup overexclusion effect is present across populations early in development and persists into adulthood. Additionally, categorization was meaningfully related to parental context, pinpointing a pathway that potentially contributes to ingroup overexclusion.
Research Highlights
White, Black, and racially diverse Biracial children and adults tended to categorize racially ambiguous Black/White Biracial faces as racial outgroup members, even if the outgroup was White.
This contradicts most work arguing Black/White Biracial racially ambiguous people are more often seen as Black.
Children and parents’ categorizations were related, though children's categorizations were not related to socialization above and beyond parents’ categorizations.
Children showed similar categorization patterns across dichotomous and continuous measures.
Objectives: Two studies investigate how Black people's empathy toward Black/White Biracial people experiencing racial discrimination relates to Black/White Biracial people's identification in the ...United States. Method: Study 1 (N = 151, Mage = 36.3 years, SD = 11.1, 57% female) examines how Black people's perceptions of whether Black/White Biracial people identify as Black at a group level are related to empathy toward them through correlational methods. In Study 2 (N = 590; Mage = 32.3 years, SD = 11.4, 71% women), we experimentally manipulate Black/White Biracial people's racial identity through vignettes and assess Black participants' perceived similarity, racial identification of the Black/White Biracial target as Black, linked fate, and empathy. We tested Black participants' empathy toward a Black/White Biracial target who self-identified as Black, self-identified as White, or self-identified as Biracial, consistent with common identification patterns among Biracial people. Results: Black participants empathized least with Black/White Biracial people who were perceived as identifying as White, or who explicitly self-identified as White. This association was mediated by perceptions that Black/White Biracial and Black people's fates are linked. Overall, Black people were most likely to empathize with Black/White Biracial people identifying as Black. Conclusions: For liminal group members, identification confers information regarding similarity, shared identity, and linked fate that relate to procuring empathy.
Public Significance Statement
Black/White Biracial people in the United States are often considered to be on the boundaries of Black and White monoracial groups and can racially identify as Black, White, or Biracial. Two studies tested how Black participants' empathy toward Black/White Biracial people who experience discrimination differs based on Biracial people's identity. The results show Black participants empathized least with Black/White Biracial people who were perceived as identifying as White, or who explicitly self-identified as White.
Research suggests that having a sexual growth mindset (SGM), or believing that a person can become a better sexual partner over time, may improve sexual relationships. The present research ...investigated the impact of SGMs on a new sexual outcome: sexual rejection sensitivity. In Study 1, adults in romantic relationships completed measures of SGM and sexual rejection sensitivity from their own and from their partner’s perspective (N = 377; 49.9% women; M
age
= 29.1 years, SD
age
= 12.2 years). Findings show that perceived partner, but not own, SGM is associated with lower sexual rejection sensitivity, and sexual rejection sensitivity mediated the link between perceived partner SGM and own sexual satisfaction. In Study 2, we replaced perceived partner SGM with actual partner SGM by recruiting both members of 104 different-sex romantic couples (M
age
= 43.9 years, SD
age
= 14.5 years). Study 2 finds that partner, but not own, SGM was negatively associated with sexual rejection sensitivity. Further, sexual rejection sensitivity was negatively associated with sexual satisfaction in Study 1 and for women in Study 2. This work demonstrates the importance of sexual partners’ implicit beliefs about sexuality (perceived or reported) in understanding sexual outcomes.
Bisexual individuals frequently experience identity denial from others due to perceptions that bisexuality is an illegitimate identity. Bisexual individuals have worse psychological health than gay, ...lesbian, and heterosexual people, but the reasons for these disparities are not well understood. Across a two-sample correlational study (Total N = 445) utilizing path analyses, we tested belonging uncertainty, bisexual meta-stereotypes, and meta-legitimacy perceptions as mediators of the relationship between identity denial and depressive symptoms. More frequent identity denial was related to greater belonging uncertainty, greater bisexual meta-stereotypes, lower meta-legitimacy, and greater reported depressive symptoms, with belonging uncertainty mediating the relationship between identity denial and depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that identity denial is related to the social and psychological health of bisexual individuals.
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