Hantaviruses are enveloped negative (−) single‐stranded RNA viruses belongs to Hantaviridae family, hosted by small rodents and entering into the human body through inhalation, causing haemorrhagic ...fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) also known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS). Hantaviruses infect approximately more than 200 000 people annually all around the world and its mortality rate is about 35%–40%. Hantaviruses play significant role in affecting the target cells as these inhibit the apoptotic factor in these cells. These viruses impair the integrity of endothelial barrier due to an excessive innate immune response that is proposed to be central in the pathogenesis and is a hallmark of hantavirus disease. A wide range of different diagnostic tools including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), focus reduction neutralization test (FRNT), enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunoblot assay (IBA), immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and other molecular techniques are used as detection tools for hantavirus in the human body. Now the availability of therapeutic modalities is the major challenge to control this deadly virus because still no FDA approved drug or vaccine is available. Antiviral agents, DNA‐based vaccines, polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies neutralized the viruses so these techniques are considered as the hope for the treatment of hantavirus disease. This review has been compiled to provide a comprehensive overview of hantaviruses disease, its pathophysiology, diagnostic tools and the treatment approaches to control the hantavirus infection.
A graphical representing the selection of data to compile the hot issue of Hantavirus associated diseases using different keywords. Then how the most relevant literature were selected using different key words. Major outlines are represented in the graphical form including Reservoir, Transmission and Replication of Virus, Pathophysiology of Diseases, Diagnostic Strategies and Therapeutic Approaches to make the article attractive for researchers and readers. Final it is represented that HFRS and HPS are major diseases associated with Hantavirus and conclusion explored that although a wide range of Diagnostic and Preventive measures are available but Drug Development is the Major Challenge required more attention.
Terpenoids are the most diverse and largest class of chemicals of the innumerable plant-based compounds. Plants carry out a number of essential growth and production functions using terpenoid ...metabolites. In contrast, most terpenoids are used in the abiotic and biotic systems for complex chemical interactions and defense. Terpenoids derived from plants mostly used humans for pharmaceutical, food, and chemical industries in the past. However, recently biofuel products have been developed by terpenoids. The metabolism of high-quality terpenoids in plants and microbes is facilitated in synthetic biology by genomic resources and emerging tools. Further focus has been given to the ecological value of terpenoids for establishing effective pesticide control approaches and abiotic stress protection. The awareness of the diverse metabolic and molecular regulatory networks for terpenoid biosynthesis needs to be increased continuously in all these efforts. This review gives an overview and highlights current improvements in our understanding of the organization, regulation, and diversification of core and specialized terpenoid metabolic pathways and discusses the prominent therapeutic roles of terpenoids. This review provides an overview and highlights recent literature in our understanding about the biomedical and therapeutic importance of terpenoids, regulation as well as the diversion of core and specialized metabolized terpenoid pathways.
Chitosan is a pseudo-natural cationic polysaccharide in nature. Because of its wide range of physical and biochemical properties, chitosan and its hybrid materials are being used in various ...industrial sectors. The dyes and other industrial effluents extensively compromise the plant growth and affect the food chain, these substances may also induce toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity. Textile dyes affect the quality of water bodies, impair photosynthesis, and increase biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD). Removal of dyes must be performed by either physicochemical, phyto-remediation, and/or biobased methodologies. All these types of dyes degradation methodologies possess various drawbacks. Therefore, attention towards chitosan and modified chitosan-based materials has been devoted in the previous few decades due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, less-toxic, and eco-friendly nature. However, its attractive properties rely on its ability to form linkages with the sulfonic groups of anionic dyes by the electrostatic force of attraction and adsorption of dyes effluents and other heavy metals in various capacities. This review highlights the properties and modifications of chitosan via (i) crosslinking; (ii) graft copolymerization and, (iii) surfactant impregnation for the development of chitosan-based hybrid materials with improved dye sorption properties have been described. In addition, chitosan nanostructures that are being studied for the smart degradation of textile dyes and effluents have also been discussed. This review provides an insight into the chitosan-based adsorbents and encourage researchers to use chitosan-based composites/blends for the removal of a variety of different dyes and dye-based effluents.
•Parkinson’s disease caused by neuron cell death that involved in the production of dopamine.•Dopamine's synthesis pathway, its receptor to which dopamine binds and performs its functions, and its ...synthesis.•Four different pathways of the dopaminergic system along with functions are concise in this review.
Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the death of neurons, ie, cells critical to the production of dopamine, an important neurotransmitter in the brain. Here, we present a brief review of the dopamine synthetic pathway, binding to the dopamine receptors, and subsequent action. The production of dopamine (a monoamine neurotransmitter) occurs in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the substantia nigra, specifically in the hypothalamic nucleus and midbrain. Compared to other monoamines, dopamine is widely distributed in the olfactory bulb, midbrain substantia nigra, hypothalamus, VTA, retina, and the periaqueductal gray area. Dopamine receptors are large G-protein coupled receptor family members, of which there are five subtypes including D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5. These subtypes are further divided into two subclasses: D1-like family receptors (types 1 and 5) and D2-like family receptors (types 2, 3, and 4). Four different pathways and functions of the dopaminergic system are presented in this review. In the oxidation of dopamine, 5,6-indolequinone, dopamine-o-quinone, and aminochrome are formed. It is difficult to separate the roles of 5,6-indolequinone and dopamine-o-quinone in the degenerative process of Parkinson’s diseases due to their instability. The role of aminochrome in Parkinson’s disease is to form and stabilize the neurotoxic protofibrils of alpha-synuclein, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and the degradation of protein by lysosomal systems and proteasomes. The neurotoxic effects of aminochrome can be inhibited by preventing the polymerization of 5,6-indolequinone, dopamine-o-quinone, and aminochrome into neuromelanin, by reducing aminochrome catalysis by DT-diaphorase, and by preventing dopamine oxidative deamination catalyzed by monoamine oxidase. In addition to these, the conversion of dopamine in the neuromelanin (NM) shows both protective and toxic roles. Therefore, the aims of this review were to discuss and explain the role of dopamine and explore its physiology and specificity in Parkinson's disease, as well as its role in other physiological functions.
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