The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the relation between mathematics and working memory (WM) and to identify possible moderators of this relation including domains of WM, types of ...mathematics skills, and sample type. A meta-analysis of 110 studies with 829 effect sizes found a significant medium correlation of mathematics and WM, r = .35, 95% confidence interval .32, .37. Moderation analyses indicated that mathematics showed comparable association with verbal WM, numerical WM, and visuospatial WM. Word-problem solving and whole-number calculations showed the strongest relation with WM whereas geometry showed the weakest relation with WM. The relation between WM and mathematics was stronger among individuals with mathematics difficulties that are associated with other disorders or cognitive deficits compared with that among typically developing individuals and individuals with only mathematics difficulties. The implications of these findings with respect to mathematics instruction and WM training are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working memory (WM) in the context of 3 major theories: the domain-specificity theory (debate) of WM, the intrinsic ...cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate correlation between reading and WM, r = .29, 95% CI .27, .31. Moderation analyses indicated that after controlling for publication type, bilingual status, domains of WM, and grade level, the relation between WM and reading was not affected by types of reading. The effects of WM domains were associated with grade level: before 4th grade, different domains of WM were related to reading to a similar degree, whereas verbal WM showed the strongest relations with reading at or beyond 4th grade. Further, the effect of WM on reading comprehension was partialed out when decoding and vocabulary were controlled for. Taken together, the findings are generally compatible with aspects of the domain-specificity theory of WM and the dual process theory, but, importantly, add a developmental component that is not currently reflected in models of the relation between reading and WM. The findings suggest that the domain-general central executive of WM is implicated in early reading acquisition, and verbal WM is more strongly implicated in later reading performance as readers gain more experience with reading. The implications of these findings for reading instruction and WM training are also discussed.
Public Significance Statement
This study showed that working memory has moderate relations with reading, and these relations are as strong for more foundational reading skills as they are for comprehension. More importantly, these relations may vary as a function of development: working memory primarily exerts an impact on reading early on, with reading also shaping the further development of verbal working memory in particular.
ABSTRACT
Because deficits in executive functions (EFs) characterize most neurodevelopmental disorders, it is appropriate to question the value of EFs for understanding learning disabilities. Two ...types of studies—those testing whether EFs moderate treatment effects and those testing the direction of effects between EFs and academic skills—are presented to support the idea that EFs are useful for the study of learning disabilities in the context of intervention. Moderator effects in reading and math intervention studies suggest that considering EFs to be properties of not only persons, but also interventions is important for understanding treatment effects and for designing more effective interventions. An experimental study comparing math word problem solving interventions and EF interventions provides evidence for bidirectional development of working memory and math word problem solving. Directions for future experimental research that systematically and more rapidly investigate growth in EFs and academic skills in individuals with learning disabilities are presented.
LAY ABSTRACT
Executive functioning involves focusing attention, ignoring distractions, and taking in and storing new information. Studies of children with learning disabilities suggest that academic interventions are most effective if their designs take into account children's level of executive functioning. Although executive functions aid learning, math and reading interventions may also promote the development of executive functions. Findings suggest that it is important to understand the role executive functions play in interventions for children with learning disabilities.
Working memory refers to a mental workspace, involved in controlling, regulating, and actively maintaining relevant information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks (e.g. mathematical processing). ...Despite the potential relevance of a relation between working memory and math for understanding developmental and individual differences in mathematical skills, the nature of this relationship is not well-understood. This paper reviews four approaches that address the relation of working memory and math: 1) dual task studies establishing the role of working memory during on-line math performance; 2) individual difference studies examining working memory in children with math difficulties; 3) studies of working memory as a predictor of mathematical outcomes; and 4) longitudinal studies of working memory and math. The goal of this review is to evaluate current information on the nature of the relationship between working memory and math provided by these four approaches, and to present some of the outstanding questions for future research.
•This is an introduction to the special issue on Reading Comprehension•We provide an orientation to the importance of reading comprehension and the challenges in both research and practice for ...individuals with reading comprehension disabilities•Each paper is introduced in relation to progress and challenges for the field of intervention and assessment research in reading comprehension disabilities
Executive function (EF) is related to reading. However, there is a lack of clarity around (a) the relative contribution of different components of EF to different reading components (word reading, ...fluency, comprehension), and (b) how EF operates in the context of known strong language predictors (e.g., components of the simple view of reading or SVR), and other skills theoretically related to reading (e.g., vocabulary, processing speed) and/or to EF (e.g., short-term memory, motor function). In a large sample of 3rd to 5th graders oversampled for struggling readers, this paper evaluates the impact of EF derived from a bifactor model (Cirino, Ahmed, Miciak, Taylor, Gerst, & Barnes,
2018
) in the context of well-known covariates and demographics. Beyond common EF, five specific factors (two related to working memory, and factors of fluency, self-regulated learning, and behavioral inattention/metacognition) were addressed. EF consistently showed a unique contribution to already-strong predictive models for all reading outcomes; for reading comprehension, EF interacted with SVR indices (word reading and listening comprehension). The findings extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of EF to reading skill.
This study's purpose was to investigate effects of 3 intervention approaches for building working memory (WM) and improving word-problem solving (WPS). Children with mathematics difficulties (n = ...240; 7.51 years SD = .33) were randomized to 4 conditions: a control group, general WM training with contiguous math practice, WPS intervention without WM training, and WPS intervention with domain-specific WM training. WM, WPS, and arithmetic were assessed before and 1-3 weeks after intervention; delayed WPS and arithmetic posttesting occurred 4-6 weeks later. Multilevel modeling of main effects and mediation effects were employed. Compared to control, general WM training with contiguous math practice and WPS intervention without WM training increased WM and WPS. The 3rd training condition, WPS intervention with domain-specific WM training, which minimized WM training time, improved WPS but without effects on WM. Both WPS intervention conditions outperformed general WM training on WPS. Conclusions are as follows. (a) General WM training with contiguous math practice improves WM and WPS. (b) WM training is not a substitute for WPS intervention when the goal is to strengthen WPS. (c) WPS intervention without WM training improves WM but is not a substitute for WM training when the goal is to strengthen WM. (d) For WM effects to accrue, WM training needs to occur with sufficient intensity. (e) WM plays a causal role in WPS, but not in arithmetic. Implications are drawn for research and practice, including assessing instructional supports in future research to build cognitive-academic bidirectionality.
Educational Impact and Implications StatementThis study provides the basis for the following conclusions about interventions to improve working memory and word-problem solving for second graders with mathematics difficulties. First, general working memory training with math practice (without word-problem solving intervention) improves working memory as well as word-problem solving. Yet, working memory training is not a substitute for word-problem solving intervention when the goal is to strengthen word-problem solving, because WPS outcome is stronger with WPS intervention. Conversely, word-problem solving intervention (without working memory training) improves working memory. Yet, word-problem solving intervention is not a substitute for working memory training when the goal is to strengthen working memory, because WM outcome is stronger with general WM training.
This study evaluated the factor structure of attention, considering internal and external attention, and juxtaposed alongside processing speed (PS) and working memory (WM). We expected the ...hypothesized model to fit better than unitary or method factors. We included 27 measures with 212 Hispanic middle schoolers from Spanish-speaking backgrounds, where a substantial proportion were at risk for learning difficulties. Confirmatory factor analytic models separated factors of PS and WM, but the final model did not align with theoretical predictions; rather only measurement factors emerged. Findings extend and refine our understanding of the structure of attention in adolescents.
•Four visual attention paradigms were related to reading in 90 students considering language.•Three paradigms showed weak relations to reading, particularly considering language.•VAS tasks did relate ...to reading even with controls, though only for alphanumeric stimuli.•Results overall were weaker than expected, and reveal susceptibilities in this literature.•Findings extend and refine understanding of the contribution of attention to reading skill.
Relations of visual attention to reading have long been hypothesized; however, findings in this literature are quite mixed. These relations have been investigated using several different visual attention paradigms and with variable controls for other competing reading-related processes. We extended current knowledge by evaluating four of the key visual attention paradigms used in this research—visual attention span, attention blink, visual search, and visuospatial attention—in a single study. We tested the relations of these to reading in 90 middle schoolers at high risk for reading difficulties while considering their effect in the context of known language predictors. Performance on visual–spatial, visual search, and attentional blink paradigms showed weak nonsignificant relations to reading. Visual attention span tasks showed robust relations to reading even when controlling for language, but only when stimuli were alphanumeric. Although further exploration of visual attention in relation to reading may be warranted, the robustness of this relationship appears to be questionable, particularly beyond methodological factors associated with the measurement of visual attention. Findings extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of attention to reading skill and raise questions about the mechanism by which visual attention is purported to affect reading.
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