Willingness to communicate (WTC) used to be seen as a stable, trait-like communicative tendency; however, in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), attention has recently shifted to its more ...dynamic, state-like components. This article systematically reviews the literature on the situational antecedents that might contribute to variation in WTC. It aims specifically at furthering our understanding of the interaction between WTC and the learning situation. After searching major databases (Web of Science, ERIC and the British Education Index), findings of 35 studies were analyzed. Different kinds of situational antecedents of WTC suggested in these studies were then systematically organized into a multi-layered framework. The framework raises awareness of the role of the learning situation, and how the learning situation is perceived by second language learners. The framework has the potential to guide future research by offering a more comprehensive and systematic approach to the study of situational antecedents of WTC and the dynamic processes that underpin WTC.
Willingness to communicate (WTC) used to be studied as a relatively stable, trait-like predisposition; however, recently attention has shifted to the more dynamic, state-like components of WTC. This ...research investigates variability and stability in state WTC, particularly focusing on within-person variability, which may lead to stable between-person differences, and situational antecedents that can either promote or hinder state WTC in L2 classrooms. To investigate whether, how and why state WTC varies over time, this study used a high-density repeated measurement design and a group of Chinese university students to describe fluctuations in state WTC in English classrooms over one semester. Data related to state WTC and selected situational antecedents were collected through a self-report questionnaire and statistically analysed. It was found that state WTC varied systematically within the person across the semester, and this variability was systematically related to changes in the psychological properties of the learning situations (e.g. teacher and peer support, task-interest, and task-importance). It was also found that within-person variability in state WTC predicted language learning performance, e.g. students whose state WTC increased as a function of perceived task interest tended to achieve higher grades at the end of the semester. This study calls for more attention to be directed at within-person variability in state WTC, and provides novel insights into how relationships between state WTC and its situational antecedents may be investigated within individuals. This work is of interest to researchers and practitioners who aim to enhance L2 learners’ state WTC and language learning performance by systematically shaping their situated learning experience.
Chinese students are frequently seen as passive learners because of their apparent reluctance to speak, particularly in English classrooms. However, this impression seems to reflect a stereotype ...which is likely to confound willingness to communicate (WTC) and communication behaviour. In this article we argue for more attention to be paid to individual differences to complement culture-related explanations of differences in WTC. Self-report data on WTC at both trait and state levels and personality characteristics were analysed in relation to L2 language learning performance in a sample of 103 university students. Individual differences in WTCL1 were found to be strongly related to extraversion; whilst individual differences in WTCL2 were associated with openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, rather than extraversion. Moreover, this study differentiates state WTCL2 from communication behaviour, and provides evidence for both trait and state WTCL2 being important predictors of L2 learning performance despite being differently related to personality. Our results overall suggest that exclusively relying on observable communication behaviour is likely to overlook effective antecedences of learning and performance. This study pleads for a more differentiated perspective on WTC and its personality correlates at both trait and state levels. It provides further evidence that WTC is a useful construct in working towards a better understanding of language learning processes.
The study aimed to investigate the status of within-person state variability in neuroticism and conscientiousness as individual differences constructs by exploring their (a) temporal stability, (b) ...cross-context consistency, (c) empirical links to selected antecedents, and (d) empirical links to longer term trait variability. Employing a sample of professionals (N = 346) from Australian organisations, personality state data together with situation appraisals were collected using experience sampling methodology in field and repeatedly in lab-like settings. Data on personality traits, cognitive ability, and motivational mindsets were collected at baseline and after two years. Contingent (situation contingencies) and non-contingent (relative SD) state variability indices were relatively stable over time and across contexts. Only a small number of predictive effects of state variability were observed, and these differed across contexts. Cognitive ability appeared to be associated with state variability under lab-like conditions. There was limited evidence of links between short-term state and long-term trait variability, except for a small effect for neuroticism. Some evidence of positive manifold was found for non-contingent variability. Systematic efforts are required to further elucidate the complex pattern of results regarding the antecedents, correlates and outcomes of individual differences in state variability.
Researchers rely on psychometric principles when trying to gain understanding of unobservable psychological phenomena disconfounded from the methods used. Psychometric models provide us with tools to ...support this endeavour, but they are agnostic to the meaning researchers intend to attribute to the data. We define method effects as resulting from actions which weaken the psychometric structure of measurement, and argue that solution to this confounding will ultimately rest on testing whether data collected fit a psychometric model based on a substantive theory, rather than a search for a model that best fits the data. We highlight the importance of taking the notions of fundamental measurement seriously by reviewing distinctions between the Rasch measurement model and more generalised 2PL and 3PL IRT models. We then present two lines of research that highlight considerations of making method effects explicit in experimental designs. First, we contrast the use of experimental manipulations to study measurement reactivity during the assessment of metacognitive processes with factor-analytic research of the same. The former suggests differential performance-facilitating and -inhibiting reactivity as a function of other individual differences, whereas factor-analytic research suggests a ubiquitous monotonically predictive confidence factor. Second, we evaluate differential effects of context and source on within-individual variability indices of personality derived from multiple observations, highlighting again the importance of a structured and theoretically grounded observational framework. We conclude by arguing that substantive variables can act as method effects and should be considered at the time of design rather than after the fact, and without compromising measurement ideals.
Research on cognitive load theory (CLT) has not yet provided facet-specific measures of cognitive load. The lack of valid methods to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load makes it ...difficult to empirically test theoretical explanations of effects caused by manipulations of instructional designs. This situation also imposes challenges to testing CLT as a theory. This paper critically reflects the conceptualisation of CLT's core concept and the implications for its operationalisation. In order to address some of the challenges we propose a complexity framework that allows the derivation of
a priori estimates of mental load that go beyond CLT's notion of element interactivity. In a study we test hypotheses with regard to effects of the variation of sources for intrinsic cognitive load (increase of complexity within tasks) and the variation of sources for extraneous cognitive load (reduction of extraneous cognitive load between tasks) in three ability groups. Complexity-based estimates prove superior to element interactivity-based estimates of mental load in the prediction of performance outcomes. Results also indicate that individual differences in information-processing capacity determine to what extent complexity is reflected as cognitive load. In this respect the proposed framework extends the focus of CLT beyond the discussion of the role of prior knowledge and acquired levels of expertise.
Compared to traditional classroom learning, success in online learning tends to depend more on the learner’s skill to self-regulate. Self-regulation is a complex meta-cognitive skill set that can be ...acquired. This study explores the effectiveness of a virtual learning assistant in terms of (a) developmental, (b) general compensatory, and (c) differential compensatory effects on learners’ self-regulatory skills in a sample of N = 157 online learners using an experimental intervention-control group design. Methods employed include behavioural trace data as well as self-reporting measures. Participants provided demographic information and responded to a 24-item self-regulation questionnaire and a 20-item personality trait questionnaire. Results indicate that the adaptive assistance did not lead to substantial developmental shifts as captured in learners’ perceived levels of self-regulation. However, various patterns of behavioural changes emerged in response to the intervention. This suggests that the virtual learning assistant has the potential to help online learners effectively compensate for deficits (in contrast to developmental shifts) in self-regulatory skills that might not yet have been developed.
•On average learners spend half of their time online on YouTube and social media.•Less than 2% of visited websites account for nearly 80% of time learners spend online.•Adaptive assistance can be effective in compensating for self-regulatory skills.•Behaviour change is associated with modifications of learners’ web environment.•Compensatory (behavioural) shifts are moderated by learners’ personality traits.
There appears to be something of an intellectual and philosophical gulf between education researchers who seek insights from statistical analyses of complex data-sets such as those provided by the ...OECD (PISA), and others who seek to develop rich, contextualised socio-historical understandings that can shed light upon why particular classroom practices operate and are sustained within a given milieu. This paper outlines these different perspectives, with particular reference to non-cognitive factors. Detailed analysis of the roots of high academic achievement, and associated challenges to student wellbeing, in many East Asian countries, is provided. The important influence of broad political and societal factors is highlighted by reference to cross-cultural differences across a large number of countries. The paper concludes by stating that while data from large datasets can assist in gaining greater understanding of cross-cultural differences, to be meaningful, such analyses should be incorporated within complex ecosystemic accounts. Author abstract
Conscientiousness and neuroticism were studied as situation contingencies in a sample of 124 managers. Experience sampling measures of situational characteristics, state conscientiousness and state ...neuroticism were collected before, during and after the performance of a range of tasks completed in an executive training program of five 3-day sessions, conducted over two years. Six months following training, supervisor ratings of participants' job performance were also collected. For all variables the majority of variability was observed at the within-person level, justifying further analysis of within-person effects. Situation contingencies were operationalized as regression slopes calculated for each individual within an MLM analysis framework. The six situation contingencies considered in the current study varied between individuals. Three of the six situation contingencies were predictive of supervisor ratings of job performance providing first evidence of the predictive validity for situation contingencies. Combined with previous findings, the current study suggests that further research on situation contingencies and their effects is justified. Suggestions for the choice of situational properties and personality states, and practical applications of situation contingencies are discussed.
•The current study makes three contributions.•First, it demonstrates the predictive validity of situation contingent units of personality from the CAPS model of Mischel and Shoda (1995), for a field based measure of performance.•Second, it shows that the contingent conscientious and neurotic responses to the same task demands have different impacts on performance.•Third, ESMs were collected in a laboratory across a controlled set of tasks, reducing the risk that the ESMs are confounded by the exposure to different sets of tasks in field only studies. Only one other study to date (Fleeson & Law, 2015) has estimated situation contingent units in a similar manner.•More generally, the development, measurement and validation of situation contingent units of personality, provides a useful addition to the study of personality effects.
Despite substantial evidence for the link between an individual’s intelligence and successful life outcomes, questions about what defines intelligence have remained the focus of heated dispute. The ...most common approach to understanding intelligence has been to investigate what performance on tests of intellect is and is not associated with. This psychometric approach, based on correlations and factor analysis is deficient. In this review, we aim to substantiate why classic psychometrics which focus on between-person accounts will necessarily provide a limited account of intelligence until theoretical considerations of within-person accounts are incorporated. First, we consider the impact of entrenched psychometric presumptions that support the status quo and impede alternative views. Second, we review the importance of process-theories, which are critical for any serious attempt to build a within-person account of intelligence. Third, features of dynamic tasks are reviewed, and we outline how static tasks can be modified to target within-person processes. Finally, we explain how multilevel models are conceptually and psychometrically well-suited to building and testing within-individual notions of intelligence, which at its core, we argue is cognitive flexibility. We conclude by describing an application of these ideas in the context of microworlds as a case study.
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